Textbook of naval aeronautics

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TEXTBOOK

OF

NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Part (if the United States Atlantic Fleet "somewhere in the United States," photographed from the seaplane of which part i
shown in the photo.

Allied ships photographed from a French coast patrol dirigible, the pilot of which is shown in the photograph.

TEXTBOOK

OF

NAVAL AERONAUTICS

BY

HENRY WOODHOUSE

WITH INTRODUCTION BY
BEAR ADMIRAL BRADLEY A. FISKE

PRESIDENT OF THE U. S. NAVAL INSTITUTE

NEW YORK

THE CENTURY CO.

1917

• -\

Copyright, 1917, by
The Century Co.

Published, June. 1911

INTRODUCTION

The appearance of this book is opportune;
because it is essential that the people be told
what naval aeronautics can do to help the na-
tion, and that the men who are to fight for us
in the air shall be given every opportunity to
learn to do it.

The greatest danger confronting the Allies
is the German submarine. For combatting the
submarine, which was the most modern weapon
when the war began, no weapon yet used has
been thoroughly effective; with the result that
the danger has increased and is still increasing.
The most effective weapon has been one more
modern than the submarine — the aircraft. If
it had been possible to use aircraft in large num-
bers, the damage done by the submarine would
have been materially decreased, and possibly
eliminated altogether. For combatting the
submarine, therefore, large numbers of aircraft
must be employed. For this work, the smaller
type of dirigible, usually called "blimp," has
been the most effective for coast patrol. It is
unfortunate that large dirigibles have not been
available; because their long radius of action
would have enabled them to patrol the ship-
lines of all the seas where the commerce of the
Allies goes, and reduce the submarine menace
to a minimum.

The Allies can get assistance, however, from
aeronautics in other ways than in submarine
hunting. They can get assistance in six ways
mainly :

First: By taking advantage of the great
speed of aircraft and the heights to which they
can rise, to get information as to the enemy, his
distance, direction, and composition.

Second: By using aircraft to "spot" from
great heights ; that is, to note how far the pro-
jectiles fired by guns missed the target, and
thus determine how to correct the range at
which the guns were set.

Third: By using aircraft to carry machine
guns and rapid-fire guns, and attack the lighter

vessels of an enemy's fleet, and make raids on
bases.

Fourth : By using aircraft to rise above the
water, and see mines and submarines, and make
photographs of enemy works and bases.

Fifth: By using aircraft to carry bombs
fitted with "delayed action fuses," and drop
them near mines, submarines, and shore works.

Sixth : By using aircraft to carry torpedoes,
and launch them at the various vessels of an
enemy's fleet; using light torpedoes with small
charges of high explosive against the lighter
vessels, and heavy torpedoes, with charges of
from two to four hundred pounds of high ex-
plosive, against the heavily armored ships.

Other uses will doubtless develop with the
progress of the art.

How great will be the weights which aircraft
can eventually carry, and what amount of of-
fensive power they can bring to bear in war, it
would be foolish to attempt to prophesy. But
aircraft are mechanisms that obey the laws of
engineering; they have increased in size thus
far exactly as mechanisms in all other branches
of engineering have increased, though much
more rapidly ; and they have carried weights in-
creasingly great, as time has passed : so, the con-
clusion is unavoidable that the prediction of
Marcel Deprez, made in 1883, which came true
of electric motors, is applicable to aircraft now :
"L'avenir est aux grandes machines" ("The fu-
ture is to great machines").

Inasmuch as the maximum of military effec-
tiveness is secured when a given power is con-
centrated in as few and as powerful units as
possible; inasmuch as the torpedoplane is the
most powerful and mobile weapon now exist-
ing ; and inasmuch as our enemies are the ablest
strategists in the world, comprehend these prin-
ciples, and will doubtless act in accordance with
them, it is of the highest order of urgency that
we develop immediately an aeroplane armed
with guns adequate for defense against fighting

■" »

INTRODUCTION

aeroplanes, and capable of carrying a torpedo of
the longest range and greatest power. It may
be that the side which brings 100 armed torpedo-
planes into action the first, will thereby gain the
unrestricted command of the sea, and become
the victor in the war.

The extended use of chemicals in the present
war has started the re-development of a special
branch of warfare. For many years before
this war, the effective work done bv navies and
armies against their enemies was almost wholly
the mechanical work performed by weapons in
striking blows, and thus inflicting mechanical
injuries on men and on defenses placed around
them. But in the present war, injuries which
were chemical and physiological have been in-
flicted, by the ancient means of flames and
gases. To transport swiftly the comparatively
light apparatus needed for this class of work,
aircraft, even of the sizes of the present day, are
admirably adapted.

On many occasions during the past six years,
I have called attention to the naval and military
possibilities of aeronautics; and on March 24
1916, I pointed out officially to the House
Naval Committee that we could improve the
national defense more in a short time by aero-

nautics than by any other means. At the pres-
ent date of writing, the public has awakened to
this fact, and now demands that every effort be
made to develop huge air fleets with which to
strike Germany over land and sea.

Our people have at least realized the possibili-
ties of aeronautics, and see that aeronautics can
be made the most effective agency available, not
only to serve the Allies, but even to save the
United States. Thev now see that, while it is
well to train a young man to use a musket in an
infantry company, more military usefulness can
be gotten out of men like mechanics, chauffeurs,
and technicians, by putting them in swiftly
moving aeroplanes and dirigibles.

It is not sufficient, however, that our people
realize the possibiliites of aeronautics in a gen-
eral way; it is essential that they form an inti-
mate acquaintance with aeronautics in all its
branches. It is essential also that a great num-
ber of capable young men be instructed as soon
as possible in caring for and operating all kinds
of aircraft and aeronautical machinery.

To start this urgent work, the most immedi-
ate agency is a book like this — clear, correct,
and stimulating.

The Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour: "The time is here when command
of the sea will be of no value to Great Britain without corresponding command
of the air."

Lord Charles Bereskord : "The time is here when the air service of Great
Britain will be more vital for her safctv than her Armv and Navv combined."

Winston Churchill, formerly First Lord of the Admiralty: "l T lti-
matclv, and the sooner the better, the air service should be one unified, perma-
nent branch of imperial defense, composed exclusively of men who will not think
of themselves as soldiers, sailors, and individuals, but as airmen and servants of
an arm which possibly at no distant date may be the dominating arm of war.

>*

Lord Montagu of Beaulieu (1916) : "Every nation will before long be
forced to create an Air Ministrv bv the sheer necessity which knows no law,
which regards no precedent, and which fears no government. The immense
development of aircraft in all directions alone will compel the creation of an
air department. "

General Petain, the veteran defender of Verdun, commander-in-chief of
the French forces : "I see France in the near future with 50,000 aeroplanes."

Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, in the House of Lords (1916) : "At the
present time the air service is merely auxiliary to the fighting forces of the
Navy and Army. I can see a time coming when the air service will be more
important than the Army and Navy. We must get into the habit cf looking
at the air service, not as an auxiliary to the Army and Navy, but as a great
service which is an establishment of itself, and to which we shall have to look
in future years for the defense of this country."

Lord Beresford : "The new air warfare is going to be of so tremendous
a character that it may supersede the Armv and Navv. We should be ahead
in the air, the same as we are on the water."

Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske testified to Congress on March 24,
1916: "Aeronautics is the thing on which we can get to work quicker, and by
which we can accomplish more than by anything else."

Alan R. Hawley, President of the Aero Club of America : "Command of
the air leads to victory on land and sea."

Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary, Chairman, National Aerial Coast
Patrol Commission: "Victory in the present war; the efficiency of our Army
and Navy ; the protection of our coasts and coastal cities, the safety of
Panama Canal ; the existence of the nation — all depend mainly on our Air
Service. Therefore a Department of Aeronautics is a vital need."

Henry A. Wise Wood stated as early as 1913: "Flight, the final abridger
of time and space, incomparably swift and matchlessly direct, suddenly, wholly
unexpected, almost unhoped for, it spreads its Wishing Carpet beneath the feet
of mankind, so to bear it hither or yon in the twinkling of an eye, all as we
dreamed over our childhood's fairv books."

i

THE SECRETARY OF THE NAVY.

WAS HI N GTON .

June 19 f 1917

My dear Sir:

Many people thought that. Tennyson was employ-
ing poetic license when he spoke of the "Airy navies
grappling in the central blue 11 ^ We have lived to see
that he was a prophet of modern power in warfare •
No nation can confidently look for victory because it
is mistress of the sea or master of the lancN Both
may he made impotent by the Nation which commands the
air.

Sincerely yours f

J V^ai^jtuvJ^a^M^

Mr. Henry Woodhouse f

407 Union Trust Buil<31ng f
Washington, D. C.

Coxurkksmax Murray Hi'lrkrt, co-author, with Senator Morris
Siiepi'ard, of the Sheppard-Hulbert Bill, which provides for the creation of a
Department of Aeronautics, and who proposed the amendment increasing the
aeronautic appropriation by tenfold, in June, 1916:

"Command of the air is the balance of power which decides victories on
land and sea. The side which holds command of the air can blind the other
side by depriving it of its air scouts and air "spotters," and at the same time,
striking its forces on land and sea with bombs, aircraft guns, and torpedoes."

PREFACE

To Train Airmen to Fight the Enemy Over, On, and Under the Water

This text-book on Naval Aeronautics is in-
tended to assist in the training of the thousands
of airmen to fight the enemy over, on, and un-
der the water.

Owing to the traditional peaceful disposition
of the United States this country has entered
the war with a small army and a very limited
personnel for the first and second lines of de-
fense, the Navy and the Naval Reserves, and
Naval Militia. The most difficult task is now
to get and train as soon as possible one hundred
thousand officers and men for the first and sec-
ond lines of defense.

The British Navy has a personnel of
400,000; the United States has about 100,000.

At present Great Britain, France, Russia,
Germany and Austria count their aeroplanes by
the tens of thousands and dirigibles by the hun-
dred. Their present plans of "increase of pro-
duction provide for increasing the number of
aeroplanes to hundreds of thousands. For in-
stance, the British Government is spending
$575,000,000 this year for aeronautics and the
other countries are spending more or less the
same amount. The report of the British Con-
troller of Aeronautical Supplies shows that
there are 958 firms engaged in aeronautic work
for the British Government. Of these 301 are
direct contractors and 657 are subcontractors.
The total number of hands employed by the
fifty firms of most importance is 66,700.

The British Naval Air Service has over
150,000 officers and men connected with it ; our
air service has not a twentieth of that number.
There are two hundred and twenty naval offi-
cers in charge of the administration of the
Royal Naval Air Service in London alone.
We have not that many officers in the entire air
service. The task that we have undertaken may
grow as big as the task which Great Britain,
France and Italy have performed and are per-
forming, and we must prepare to do our duty
in a whole-hearted, substantial way. We must

expect to have to keep our first line of defense
engaged in preventing successful operations on
the part of the enemy's ships, and our second
line of defense busy in protecting the merchant
ships, transports, the coasts, harbors, and naval
stations.

We must expect that as soon as we get ready
to ship supplies in large quantities, or troops,
the common enemy, the U-boats, and the raid-
ers and mine-layers, will begin their operations
in American waters. Then aircraft will be
needed in large number in connection with
both, the first and second lines of defense. We
get an idea of how extensively we may need
them from the report which Sir Edward Car-
son made, on February 21, 1917, to the British
Government, in which he stated : that since the
commencement of the war the British Navy
(with the cooperation of its most efficient aerial
coast patrol) had examined 25,874 ships.
During the first eighteen days of February,
6076 ships arrived in ports of the United King-
dom, and 5873 ships had cleared from United
Kingdom ports. Practically every ship that
arrived and every ship that cleared was
inspected as it neared the ports, and convoyed
by dirigibles or seaplanes. Sir Edward Car-
son pointed out that from the beginning of the
war up to October 30, 1916, the British .Navy
transported across the seas 8,000,000 troops,
9,420,000 tons of explosives and material, 47,-
504,000 gallons of gasolene, over a million of
sick and wounded, and over a million mules and
horses, etc.

Aircraft played an important part in pro-
tecting this gigantic accomplishment, but to do
it the Allies' naval air services had to be ex-
tended to enormous proportions. The British
naval air service, for instance, employs scores
of seaplane and kite-balloon carriers in connec-
tion with the first line of defense, and scores
of seaplane stations on the British coasts for
the air service of the second line of defense.

PREFACE

There are not less than five thousand British
naval aviators, and pilots of naval dirigible bal-
loons and kite-balloon operators — and as many
connected with the British land forces.

Naval aircraft in the present war have ac-
tually been employed for the following pur-
poses :

1. Attacked ships and submarines at sea with
bombs, torpedoes, and guns. (Seaplanes and
dirigibles used. )

2. Bombed the enemy's bases and stations.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used.)

3. Attacked the enemy's aircraft in the air.
(Aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)

4. Served as the eyes and scouts of fleets at
sea. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used. )

5. Protected ships at sea and in ports against
attacks from hostile submarines and battleships.
( Seaplanes and dirigibles used. )

6. Defended and protected naval bases and
stations from naval and aerial attacks. (Land
aeroplanes, seaplanes, and dirigibles used.)

7. Convoyed troop ships and merchant ships
on coastwise trips. (Dirigibles and seaplanes
used.)

8. Patrolled the coasts, holding up and in-
specting doubtful ships, and convoying them to
examining stations and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. (Dirigibles used.)

9. Prevented hostile aircraft from locating
the position and finding the composition and dis-
position of the fleet, getting the range of ships,
naval bases, station, magazines, etc. (Land
aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)

10. Located, and assisted trawlers, destroy-
ers and gunners in capturing or destroying hos-
tile submarines. ( Seaplanes, dirigibles and kite
balloons used.)

11. Cooperated with submarines, guiding

them in attacks on ship. (Dirigibles and sea-
planes used.)

12. Located mine fields and assisted trawlers
in destroying mines. (Dirigibles, seaplanes
and kite balloons used.)

13. Served as the "eyes" in planting mines,
minimizing the time required for mine planting.
(Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons used.)

14. Served as "spotters" in locating the posi-
tion of the hostile ships and directing gunfire.
(Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons used.)

15. Served as carriers of important messages
between ships which could not be entrusted to
wireless owing to the possibility of the enemy
wireless picking up the messages, such as com-
municating to incoming ships information re-
garding the location of mines, submarines, and
courses, to avoid mistakes and confusion. ( Sea-
planes and dirigibles used.)

16. Carried out operations over land and sea
intended to divert the attention of and mislead
the enemy while strategical operations were be-
ing carried out by the fleet of squadrons.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used.)

17. Have made it possible for commanders
to get films of theaters of operation, photo-
graphs of the location, composition and disposi-
tion of hostile naval forces, and photographic
records of condition and of the movements and
operations of their own as well as of the hostile
naval forces.

As American airmen have not had occasion
to do any of these things, they still have every-
thing to learn and the new men who come in to
fill the ranks will even have to learn the rudi-
ments of aeronautics.

Realizing this, the author has endeavored to
make this a book of reference for the authori-
ties and for every person's library, and a book
of instruction for the naval aeronautic student.

CONTENTS

Chapter I Aerial Strategy and Tactics .

Revolutionary Operations of Naval Aviators Over Land
— Ships That Navigate Over Mountains! — Cooperation
Between Army and Navy Air Services — Functions of the
Naval Air Service — Blockading of Air Fleets Impossible
— Aerial Operations Independent of the Fleet — The Air
Service in Cooperation with the Fleet, and as an Auxil-
iary of the Navy — Numerous Services Rendered by Air-
craft as Auxiliaries of Navies

Chapter II Aerial Attacks on Ships at Sea

An Aerial Attack on a Seaplane Carrier — Weapons and
Methods of Attack on Ships — How the Revolutionary
Leavitt Torpedo Was Developed

Chapter III The Torpedoplane and Its
Possibilities

Chapter IV Attacking Ships with Aircraft
Guns

Quickest Way to Prepare Defense of United States
Against Invasion Is to Develop Large and Powerful Bat-
tleplanes

Chapter V Aircraft Mother Ships .

American Aviators First to Fly from and Alight on
Deck of Ship — Seaplane Carriers vs. Having Seaplanes
on Board of Cruisers — Recovering Seaplanes at Sea —
Solution Rests with Aircraft Capable of Rising Ver-
tically from Deck of Ship— Submarines as Seaplane Car-
riers — Kite-Balloon Carriers

Chapter VI Submarine Hunting by Air-
craft

Historic — Methods of and Weapons for Aerial Attack on
Submarines — Painting Submarines to Make Them Less
Visible— To Distinguish Hostile Submarines from Our
Own — Kite Balloons as Lookouts for Submarines — The
First Aerial Submarine Hunt in American History —
French System of Patrol Against U-Boats

Chapter VII Locating Submerged Mines
with Aircraft

Chapter VIII Naval Anti-Aircraft De-
fenses

Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns — Jurisdiction Over Naval
Anti-Aircraft Defenses — British Anti-Aircraft Defenses
— Aircraft Brought Down in 1916— Efficient Anti-Air-
craft Defense in 1916 Bring Reduced Aircraft Insurance
Rates

Chapter IX The Aerial Defenses Needed
for the Thirteen Naval Districts of
the United States and Two Insular Na-
val Districts

How Far Should Naval Airmen Carry Their Operations
Over Land?

PAGE

3

10

16

SO

24

88

51

58

64

Chapter X Administration
Aeronautic Station

of a Naval

69

Regulations for the United States Navy Aeronautic
Station, Pensacola, Florida

PAGE

Chapter XI Safety Orders and Regula-
tions Pertaining to the Flying School
at United States Naval Aeronautic Sta-
tion 78

Chapter XII Rules for Flying Issued by

British Royal Flying Corps .... 85

Chapter XIII Training of Aviators

. .

86

Chapter XIV Courses of Instruction and

Required Qualifications of Personnel

for the Air Service of the United

States Navy

Course of Instruction for United States Student Naval
Airmen

87

Chapter XV Course of Instruction for

the Training of Aviators 97

Chapter XVI Aerial Navigation Over Wa-
ter 104s

Limitations of Magnetic Compass — Determination of
Drift— The Synchronised Drift Set— Precautions in
Flight Over Water — Movements of the Wave Crests —
Corrections for Movement

Chapter XVII Aeroplane Guns and Aerial

Gunnery 118

Chapter XVIII Spotting the Fall of

Shots 118

How the Aeroplanes Made It Possible to Wreck the
Konigaberg— "Spotting" from a Dirigible— "Spotting"
from a Kite Balloon

Chapter XIX Bomb Dropping from Air-
craft 118

Chapter XX Aerial Photography .

Chapter XXI Radio Telegraphy

. 121

. 124

Chapter XXII Night Flying .... 126
First Night Flight Over Water in the United States

Chapter XXIII Instruments for \erial

Navigation 129

General Requirements — Barometer or Altimeter — Com-
pass — Air-Speed Meter — Inclinometer — Drift Meter —
Tachometer — Oil Gage — Oil-Pressure Gage — Gasoline
Gage — Gasoline-flow Indicator — Distance Indicator —
Barograph — Angle of Attack Indicator — Radiator Tem-
perature Indicator — Gasoline Feed System Pressure Indi-
cator — Sextant — Aeroplane Director — Warns the Aviator
Against Stalling — Signals Aviator to Keep the Aeroplane
Level

CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter XXIV United States Navy Aero-
nautics 185

United States Navy Aviation Section Holds Distinction
of Being First to Operate Under Conditions Approxi-
mating Warfare — Navy Department Decides Against
Government Construction of Aircraft — The First United
States Navy Dirigible — Specifications for Hydroaero-
planes, 1915 — United States Navy Experimental Wind
Tunnel — Specifications for Seaplanes, 1916 — United States
Navy Experimental Seaplane — Act Increasing Pay of
Naval Aviators — Appropriations and Expenditures for
Naval Aeronautics — Navy Orders Sixteen Coast Patrol
Dirigibles— Officers in Charge of Naval Aeronautics —
U. S. Naval Experimental Wind Tunnel — The Aeronautic
Needs of the United States Navy

Chapter XXV Regulations Relating to
Enrollments in the United States Na-
val Reserve Flying Corps .... 151

Chapter XXVI Naval Militia Aeronautics 155

Development of Aeronautics in the Naval Militia — Cali-
fornia Naval Militia — Connecticut Naval Militia — Dis-
trict of Columbia Naval Militia— Illinois Naval Militia-
Maine Naval Militia — Massachusetts Naval Militia —
Michigan Naval Militia — New Jersey Naval Militia —
New York Naval Militia— Oregon Naval Militia — Penn-
sylvania Naval Militia — Rhode Island Naval Militia —
Wisconsin Naval Militia

Chapter XXVII Aerial Coast Patrol . . 170

Duties of Coast Patrol Aviators— The United States
Aerial Coast Patrol— History of the United States Aerial
Coast Patrol— Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1— Aerial
Coast Patrol Unit No. 2— Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No.
3— Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 4

Chapter XXVIII The Evolution of the

Seaplane and the Flying Boat . . . 177

The Wright Experiment— The First Flight from the
Water— Glenn H. Curtiss's Success— The Paris-Deauville
Race — Development Between 1914-17 — Table of the
Leading American Hydroaeroplanes, Seaplanes and Fly-
ing Boats

Chapter XXIX Naval Dirigibles

. 196

Germany's Naval Airships— The "Blimps," "Coast Patrol
Airships," "Submarine Spotters"

Chapter XXX Specifications for United

States Navy Scouting Type Dirigibles . 206

*.»■■»
Chapter XXXI Construction and Opera-
tion of Kite Balloons J IT

Location of Kite-Balloon Aerodrome — Laying Out — In-
flation (by Bottles) — Ascension — Pulling Down — Ob-
servation — Use as Free Balloon — Inspection and Repair
— Packing Up and Carrying

Chapter XXXII Evolution
Motor

of the Aero

8"

The Development of Aero Motors in the Great War —
American Aero Motors — Specifications for Aeroplane
Motors Issued by the Navy Department — Table of Char-
acteristics of the Leading American Aeroplane Motors

Chapter XXXIII Aeronautics in Relation
to Naval Architecture &

Chapter XXXIV Aerodynamics — Experi-
mental Researches on the Resistance of
Air SM

Classification of Experimental Methods — Diagrams Rep-
resenting the Results of Experiments — The Apparatus
of Aviation

Chapter XXXV Government and Civilian
Organizations Developing Naval Aero-
nautics in the United States . . .8

United States Navy Department — Division of Naval
Militia Affairs — National Naval Militia Board — The Air-
craft Production Board and Council of National Defense
— The National Advisor}' Committee for Aeronautics —
Naval Consulting Board of the United States— The
United States Coast Guard — The Aero Club of America
and Constituent Aero Clubs — The National Aerial Coast
Patrol Commission — Board cooperating with the Com-
mandant of the Third Naval District in the Organiza-
tion of the Naval Reserve Force*; — The Aircraft Manu-
facturers' Association — The Society of Automotive En-
gineers — The National Special Aid Society — Conference
Committee on National Preparedness — The Pan American
Aeronautic Federation

Chapter XXXVI Rules Governing Tests
for the Federation Aeronautique Inter-
nationale Pilot Certificates . . .81

Spherical Balloon Pilot's Certificate— Dirigible Balloon
Pilot's Certificate— Aviator's Certificate— Hydroaero-
plane Pilot's Certificate — Licenses — Application for Li-
cense — Validity and Withdrawal of a License — Expert
Aviator— Tests for Calendar Year 1917

Chapter XXXVII Identification
for Aircraft

Marks

INDEX COMPILED BY HOWARD L. GOODHART

The photographs are from the private collection of Henry
Woodhouse and by courtesy of FLYING, AERIAL
AGE, and the ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

CHAPTER I
AERIAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS

Naval aeronautics as an applied science is in
its infancy, but there are definite indications of
the course of developments. In a general way,
the development of air fleets will be on the same
lines as the development of sea fleets; the
manoeuvering will be governed by the same basic
principles of strategy and tactics as are followed
for the operation of sea fleets, excepting that
the air fleets have a boundless ocean of air,
boundless vertically as well as horizontally. An
air fleet can fly over or under the enemy's air
fleet, and can make its base in a lake in the midst
of mountains or in a shallow bay, where no ship
of the sea can go. It can operate on land and
across promontories, and fly over mountains.
In other words, the base of an air fleet can be
established almost anywhere, whereas bases for
ships of the sea can only be established in a few
favorable places where the water and coastal
conditions permit. The air fleets can always
travel in straight lines, whereas all vessels of the
sea must follow the charted channels.

Revolutionary Operations of Naval Aviators

Over Land

Bearing in mind the sharp lines of demarca-
tion where, usually, the Navy ceases to operate
and the Army begins to operate, and vice versa,
we must admit that the operations of naval air
fleets in the present war are positively revolu-
tionary, because we find hundreds of cases where
naval aviators, flying land aeroplanes, as well
as seaplanes, made raids which took them for
several hundreds of miles over the enemy's
country. In many cases the purpose has been
to destroy the enemy's sources of supplies of
munitions, as in the case of the raid on the
Mauser works, at Obendorf , carried out on Oc-

tober 13, 1916, in which a squadron of British
Royal Naval aviators participated. How the
raids are carried out will be told hereafter under
the heading: "Raiding Operations."

Ships that Navigate Over Mountains!

There have been hundreds of raids by Allied
naval aeroplanes overland in the interior of
Germany, in the Balkans, Mesopotamia, Asia
and Africa. Likewise, there have been numer-
ous raids by the naval aeroplanes of the Central
Powers inland on Russian, French and British
soil. Instances will be quoted hereafter, under
the heading of: "How Far Should Naval
Aviators Go Inland?"

There are significant records of flights by
naval aviators over mountains. Dirigibles have
been flying over mountains for years. For in-
stance, on September 15, 1916, naval aviators
flying land machines bombed bases in the inte-
rior in Bulgaria, and on September 17, 1916, a
seaplane of the Royal Naval Flying Corps
bombed a town in Palestine forty-five miles
from the coast, crossing mountains several thou-
sand feet high on its outward journey. This
was, in effect, a ship being navigated over moun-
tains! As a matter of fact the Italian naval
aviator, Angelo Guenzi, on January 10, 1917,
flew a hydroaeroplane from the naval base at
Gesto Calendre to a height of 18,000 feet, which
is higher than some of the highest mountains.
Zeppelins are also capable of reaching heights
close to 20,000 feet.

It is also interesting to note that oftentimes,
in the course of a flight, naval aeroplanes, like
dirigibles, pass over parts of England, France,
Belgium and Germany.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

^^^^^^ One of Hn- huge three-motored .American seaplanes
^^^^^ which arc (ioinp such effective work in submarine hunt-
1 ^^^^^ ing for Ureal Britain.

^k

i

- m*k i

*
J

Cooperation Between Army and Navy Air
Services

GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE HAVE MINISTERS
OF THE AIR

The official reports give many instances of
army and navy aero squadrons having coopera-
ted in bombing expeditions. Likewise, there
are numerous instances of attacks on ships at
sea by army aeroplanes.

Perhaps most revolutionary of all was the ap-
pointing of Admiral Sir Percy Scott, a naval
man, to take charge of the anti-aircraft de-
fenses of London.

All demarcations have been wiped out, and
as a matter of fact, both Great Britain and
France have now put their air services under a
Minister of the Air, who supervises, in a general
way, both the army and naval branches of the
air service. The supervision deals essentially
with getting the equipment and the personnel,
and carrying out the broad policy of the Defense
Councils. The details of operation are, of
course, left to the army and navy authorities.
The German air services have always cooperated
very closely. A step towards very close co-
operation between the U. S. Army and Navy
was taken in the early part of March, 1917,

when the Joint Board of Aeronautics decided
to establish joint training aeronautic stations.
A further step towards placing the air services
of the United States under a Minister of the
Air was taken in May, 1917, when the Aircraft
Production Board was appointed.

Functions of the Naval Air Service

IT HAS ALREADY EXTENDED THE FUNCTIONS OP
NAVIES

The functions of vessels of war were defined
by Admiral Sir Percy Scott some time ago as
follows :

DEFENSIVELY

1. To attack ships that come to bombard our

ports.

2. To attack ships that come to blockade us.

3. To attack ships carrying a landing party.

4. To attack the enemy's fleet.

5. To attack ships interfering with our com-

merce.

OFFENSIVELY

1. To bombard an enemy's ports.

2. To blockade the enemy.

3. To convoy a landing party.

4. To attack the enemy's fleet.

5. To attack the enemy's commerce.

AERIAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS

The official reports of the employment of sea-
planes in the great war show that air fleets have
been used to perform every one of the aforesaid
functions — and more. Hundreds of aerial at-
tacks on ships and submarines have taken place.
Besides attacking ships, convoying ships and
landing parties, protecting commerce, bombard-
ing the enemy's ports, and- attacking the
enemy's commerce, the naval air fleets of the
warring nations have done many things, includ-
ing, as has been pointed out, attacking munition
factories far inland, and strategical places,
which require flying over mountains. In other
words, the naval air services have extended the
functions of navies.

Naval aero squadrons equipped with guns
have also flown inland and attacked bodies of
troops with their guns and bombed railroads
far from the coast.

Blockading of Air Fleets Impossible

Blockading of air fleets is, of course, impos-
sible, because they operate on the vertical plane
and have roads in every compass direction at
every fifty feet skyward up to any height — the
altitude record being 26,260 feet.

Scouting may be taken as the equivalent of
the work of the cruisers; torpedo launching and
bomb dropping, as the equivalent of the work of
the destroyers; and the combined damage done
by the dropping of several tons of explosives
carried by aero squadrons may be taken as the
equivalent of the work done by a battleship.

Photograph taken "Somewhere"
in the War Zone, showing a Brit-
ish seaplane mounted with a Da-
vis Non-Recoil Gun, which is now
made in three-inch size, weighing
less than 500 pounds. A single
shot will sink a suhmarine. A
"flight" of five machines mount-
ing such a gun — n "flight" being
the smallest tactical unit — can
disable the best destroyer.

100 BATTLE-PLANES EQUIPPED WITH 8-INCH

GUNS AFFORD DEFENSIVE POWER OF 60,000

RIFLES TO PREVENT LANDING OF AN

INVADING FORCE

Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, United
States Navy, has pointed out that 100 battle-
planes carrying 3-inch guns would have a defen-
sive power equivalent to 60,000 rifles. They
would have this additional advantage that,
whereas 60,000 infantrymen would be hard to
transport to any one place, the battle-planes
could easily cover a line of 300 miles; in other
words, could be mobilized quickly at any one
point between New York and the Chesapeake
to prevent the landing of an invading force.
Admiral Fiske very aptly points out that this
extreme mobility of power is unknown in any
other arm of our defenses. It is also pointed
out that it would take a tremendous length of
time to equip and train 60,000 infantrymen,
whereas it would take a comparatively short
time to get 100 battle-planes with the trained
aviators and equipment necessary.

The size and power of aeroplanes is steadily
increasing and aeronautic engineers now con-
sider it quite practicable to build aeroplanes
that will carry between 30 and 50 tons. This
may sound extreme at the date of writing, but
it does not sound half as extreme as when in
1908 it was stated that some day an aeroplane
would go up to a height of 7000 feet with
twenty-one passengers, which is exactly what
was done in England in July, 1916. Not later

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The first Naval Air Raid of the Great War. Cuxhaven, Germany's famous naval base, chief airship base, and I
was attacked by seven bomb-dropping British naval seaplanes on Christmas day, 1914. (The impregnable position of Cuxhaven,
and Heligoland and the Schillig Roads are shown herewith.) The seaplanes were carried to German waters on steamers converted
Into seaplane carriers which were convoyed by British cruisers.

than 1911 it was considered impossible to fly an
aeroplane with two motors. Mr. Edwin Gould
offered a prize of $15,000 for a contest governed
by very modest conditions, but the prize was not
won. We can look forward to amazing and
speedy progress in the construction and appli-
cation of aircraft. Half a dozen nations have
between 2000 and 12,000 aviators each, which
have been enlisted and trained since the begin-
ning of the Great War. Canada alone, which
did not have any aviators at the beginning of
the war, sent 600 aviators to England in twenty
months.

Aerial Operations Independent of the Fleet

Every raid of the naval Zeppelins has been
independent of the German fleet; likewise all
the seaplanes raids over land.

In independent aerial operations a number of
seaplane carriers are often used. In the Salon-
ika campaign, where there was no danger of at-
tack on seaplane carriers from hostile warships,
seaplane carriers were pressed into use in num-
ber. The Turkish bases were beyond reach of
naval guns and owing to the lack of transpor-
tation facilities, the Allied land forces could

only advance slowly. There the seaplanes be-
came the most effective weapons for attacking
the bases, destroying railroads, trains, supply
stations, etc. In July, 1916, a British aviator
torpedoed four Turkish vessels.

On May 1st, 1917, a German seaplane tor-
pedoed the British steamer Gena. The details
of this startling event — which introduces a new
method of naval attack — were given in the affi-
davit signed at Newcastle by the American sea-
man, Oscar C. Findley to the American Consul.
The affidavit reads :

"While I was aboard the British steamer Gena in the
Channel on May 1, two German seaplanes, 800 feet
aloft, passed near by. Without any warning what-
ever, one dropped a torpedo to the water and the mis-
sile sped along the surface and struck the Gena. We
sank in thirty-five minutes.

A Norwegian steamer which approached us was
similarly attacked. We fired while sinking and
brought down one seaplane. The other fled. Two
Germans on the destroyed plane were picked Up by
the same trawler that rescued survivors from our
ship.

The number and extent of independent aerial
operations will increase with the employment of
the larger seaplanes being built, which will be

AERIAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS

r the German Fleet. Capable of staying in the air fifty hours, and of traveling at a speed of close to s
an hour, the Zeppelin is the aerial eye and the aerial guide of the German Fleet,

able to carry torpedoes and guns of large
enough caliber to sink unarmored ships.

The Air Service in Cooperation with the
Fleet, and a* an Auxiliary of the Navy

The Great War was only a few months old
when the first aerial squadron in the cooperation
of the fleet was carried out. It was the expedi-
tion against Cuxhaven, Germany's famous
naval base, chief airship and mine base, which
happened on Christmas Day, 1914. Three
steamers converted into seaplane carriers were
used to transport the seaplanes and were es-
corted by cruisers and destroyers. The pur-
pose was to bomb the airship sheds. Seven
British seaplanes- participated, six of which re-

turned to the seaplane carriers. The pilot of
the seventh landed away from the seaplane car-
riers and was picked up later by a trawler.
(See chapter on "Bomb Dropping From Air-
craft" for details.)

Numerous Services Rendered by Aircraft as
Auxiliaries of Navies

A seaplane from the mother ship Engadine
was used by the Kritish, and Zeppelins were
used by the Germans for reconnoitering in the
battle of Jutland on May 30, 1910. But in this
case the aircraft were the auxiliaries of the
fleet.

This brings us to the numerous services which
aircraft can render as auxiliaries of the navy.

Photograph taken during the Jutland Sea Battle, May 31, 1916, which was the first actual naval battle participated Id by aircraft

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

-ir»jnV- i^.^^.,: .,;

Seaplanes (mm one of the many aerial coast patrol stations on the l*'re
Admiral Lacaie, the French Minister of Marine, on May J(i, 1917, said:
coasts, so that the rone of action of each station joins that of Its neighbo]

Dirigibles, aeroplanes and kite balloons as
auxiliaries of navies, have rendered the follow-
ing services:

1. Attacked ships and submarines at sea with
bombs, torpedoes, and guns. (Seaplanes and
dirigibles used.)

2. Bombed the enemy's bases and stations.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used.)

3. Attacked the enemy's aircraft in the air.
(Aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)

4. Served as the eyes and scouts of fleets at
sea. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used.)

5. Protected ships at sea and in ports against
attacks from hostile submarines and battleships.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles used.)

6. Defended and protected naval bases and
stations from naval and aerial attacks. (Land
aeroplanes, seaplanes, and dirigibles used.)

7. Convoyed troop ships and merchant ships
on coastwise trips. (Dirigibles and seaplanes
used.)

8. Patrolled the coasts, holding up and in-

specting doubtful ships, and convoying them to
examining stations and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. (Dirigibles used.)

9. Prevented hostile aircraft from locating
the position and finding the composition and
disposition of the fleet, getting the range of
ships, naval bases, stations, magazines, etc.
(Land aeroplanes and seaplanes used.)

10. Located, and assisted trawlers, de-
stroyers, and gunners in capturing or destroy-
ing hostile submarines. (Seaplanes, dirigibles
and kite balloons used.)

11. Cooperated with submarines, guiding
them in attacks on ships. (Dirigibles and sea-
planes used.)

12. Located mine fields and assisted trawlers
in destroying mines. (Dirigibles, seaplanes
and kite balloons used J

13. Served as the "eyes in planting mines,"
minimizing the time required for mine plant-
ing. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used.)

14. Served as "spotters" in locating the po-
sition of the hostile ships and directing gun-

AERIAL STRATEGY AND TACTICS

fire. (Dirigibles, seaplanes and kite balloons
used.)

15. Served as carriers of important messages
between ships which could not be entrusted to
wireless owing to the possibility of the enemy
wireless picking up the messages, such as com-
municating to incoming ships information re-
garding the location of mines, submarines, and
courses, to avoid mistakes and confusion.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles used.)

16. Carried out operations over land and sea
intended to divert the attention of and mislead
the enemy while strategical operations were
being carried out by the fleet of squadrons.
(Land aeroplanes, seaplanes and dirigibles
used. )

17. Have made it possible for commanders to
get films of theaters of operation, photographs
of the location, composition and disposition of
hostile naval forces, and photographic records
of condition and of the movements and opera-
tions of their own, as well as of the hostile naval
forces.

In the United States we are just beginning
to realize the importance of aeronautics, and we

are just taking steps to develop our air service.
The entire country may be said to be cooperat-
ing with the Aircraft Production Board and
the Army and Navy in developing the air serv-
ice. About 30,000 applications have been re-
ceived from young men wishing to join the air
service, mostly college men, several hundred of
whom are now learning to fly at their own ex-
pense, to be ready to meet an emergency. Six
units of the aerial coast patrol are under or-
ganization, and the members of these units are
training at their own expense and have pur-
chased seaplanes, the use of which they have
offered to the Government. The same is true
in the naval militia. Patriotic people who be-
came interested in aerial preparedness through
the efforts of the Aero Club of America have
contributed aeroplanes and funds with which to
start aviation sections in the naval militia of a
number of states.

With this great popular interest, we may ex-
pect this country — the country of Langley, the
Wrights, Curtiss, and other pioneers — will take
giant steps in the development of our much
needed air service.

A 300 horse-powei

hunting and launchir.g of

photographed from a Curtiss liydr oai-ro plane, the tail of which, is seen id the photograph.

CHAPTER II
AERIAL ATTACKS ON SHIPS AT SEA

Historic; Aerial attacks on ships, cruisers,
destroyers, submarines, and merchantmen at
sea began in the early part of the war, as soon
as aircraft became numerous enough to per-
mit employing them for offensive operations.
A few of the earliest cases of aerial attacks on
ships are given herewith:

In 1914-15, a small squadron of Russian
seaplanes bombed the German cruisers Breslau
and Gbeben which were bombarding the port
of Sevastopol. On May 5, 1915, a German
naval aero squadron bombed the Russian crui-
ser Slava and a submarine on the Baltic Sea.
The French steamer Harmonie, on December
11, was attacked by an Austrian submarine.
The submersible fired two torpedoes, which
were without effect, and then withdrew. The
next day the Harmonie was attacked by an
aeroplane that flew overhead for a quarter of
an hour and dropped six bombs, all of which
fell into the sea.

German seaplanes have been active particu-

larly in enforcing the "war zone" decree issued
against the British Isles. A seaplane cruising
over the North Sea attacked with bombs the
British steamer Cordoba as she was entering
Yarmouth Harbor. No damage was done.
Seaplanes also dropped bombs on a Dutch and
a British vessel, early in 1915, but without hit-
ting them. Zeppelins have been used by Ger-
many for the defense of commerce against at-
tacks by British and Russian submarines. The
steamer Scotia of Stettin, Prussia, bound from
Sweden to Stettin with a cargo of ore, was pur-
sued by a British submarine off Bornholm. In
reply to wireless calls for assistance, a Zep-
pelin suddenly appeared, whereupon the sub-
marine submerged and disappeared. The
Turkish army headquarters announced that a
hostile monitor, which was firing shells in the
direction of Akabah, was silenced by a Turkish
aeroplane, which dropped two bombs on the
monitor.

An English aeroplane dropped three bombs

AERIAL ATTACKS ON SHIPS AT SEA

A bomb dropped from an aircraft exploding in the wi

serial attacks on destroyers off the Belgian
coast by British aviators. In several cases the
destroyers were reported sunk. There also
have been many reports of torpedo boats de-
stroyed in German parts by bombs dropped by
Allies' aviators.

The American steamer Cushing, which ar-
rived at Rotterdam on April 29, 1916, from
Philadelphia with a cargo of petroleum, re-
ported that on the afternoon of April 26, when
in latitude 51 degrees, 45 minutes N., and longi-
tude 2 degrees 30 minutes, E., she was attacked
by a German aeroplane which threw three
bombs at the ship. The first two fell wide, but
the third passed exceedingly close to the stern
rail and fell into the sea. At the time the ship
was flying the American flag and had her name
painted on the side in letters six feet long.

It will be remembered that after his early
operations in Flanders, Com. Samson took a
wing of the R. N. A. S. to Gallipoli, where he
and many of his wing were mentioned in des-
patches by Admiral de Robeck and General
Sir Charles Monroe. Later, he was invalided

from a height of 500 feet on enemy lorries on
November 21. The bombs having missed, the
machine turned and flew over the lorries again
and dropped three bombs in the midst of them.
Turning again, the observer directed his ma-
chine gun on the enemy from a height of 150
feet. In the course of the first of the raids
made by Allied airmen on Bruges, the railway
line outside the town was destroyed and a ves-
sel at St. Michel, occupied by Germans, was
damaged. In the course of the second attack
made upon the port, serious damage was done
to three torpedo boats and the steamer Col-
chester. In the third raid a wharf for sub-
marines between Lisseweghe and Zeebrugge
was hit. Flight Sub-Lieutenant Ferrand at-
tacked a hostile seaplane November 28, 1915,
which was accompanied by three more sea-
planes and a destroyer, off the Belgian coast,
and brought it down by gunfire when it im-
mediately sank. He then attacked the de-
stroyer, and only abandoned the attack after
coming under heavy shell fire both from the
destroyer and the shore batteries of Westend.
This is only one of a number of cases of

A bomb dropped from u (Jernmn aircra.'t exploding clns
to a British ship. Photograph taken from a British cruise
during the action off Cuxhavcn, December 25, 1914, which wa
the first naval aerial operation in history.

12

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Hanclley Page battleplane. The span of the machine is about J1H ieei, length (>.5 feet, height £0 feet, with seating facilities
for five people. It is equipped with two 12-cylinder Holls-Royce motors of J80 horse-power. It has mountings for 3 Lewis guns.
This machine holds all the world's records for large aeroplanes up to a pilot and 20 passengers, which were carried to a height of
7,180 feet, the pilot on this occasion being Mr. Clifford B. Prodger, an American.

home, and, on his recovery, returned to the
eastern Mediterranean, where he took com-
mand of the Ben-Ma-Chree. Despatches from
the Egyptian command had previously men-
tioned this ship as a seaplane carrier, con>
manded by Squadron Commander (Acting
Wing Commander) L'Estrange Malone, now
wing commander.

In 1912 the British seaplane carrier Ben-
Ma-Chree (Wing-Commander C. R. Samson,
D. S. O.) was sunk by gunfire in Kastelorizo
Harbor (Asia Minor) on January 11. The
only casualties were one officer and four men
wounded.

An Aerial Attack on a Seaplane Carrier

A vivid picture of a bombing attack upon a
ship at sea has been given by Lieutenant Fran-
(jois-Bernou, who was aboard the seaplane car-
rier Ben-Ma-Chree in the Salonika campaign.
The exact position of the ship has been deleted
by the censor for obvious reasons, and a number
of photographs taken aboard were skilfully
mangled in fear of many valuable details reach-
ing the enemy. Life aboard the mother ship
would seem a very novel and thrilling experi-
ence to the layman, but familiarity soon breeds
not contempt but indifference to the extraor-
dinary activities which form its daily routine.

The fascinating spectacle of the aeroplanes ris-
ing from the mother ship for their perilous
flights of reconnaissance or attack, or their ar-
rival from long aero cruises and the work of
swinging them inboard or overboard by power-
ful cranes, soon became a commonplace. As
Lieutenant Francjois-Bernou remarks, these
sights, which have never before been witnessed
in anv war on land or sea, seemed no more un-
usual than the cranking of an automobile.

The French officer, being a newcomer, was
alive to the extraordinarv dramatic interest of
these stirring days. Many of the flights were
made for long distances above the Holy Land,
and Lieutenant Francjois-Bernou was im-
pressed by the curious coincidence that the land
of miracles should witness this twentieth-
century miracle of flight. Day after day the
seaplanes ventured forth from the shelter of the
mother ship on many daring flights to spy the
enemy's positions or direct the deadly fire from
the sky upon troops or fortifications far inland,
and after raids would return like homing
pigeons, bringing in valuable reports.

One of the most dramatic incidents of the
life aboard the seaplane carrier Ben-Ma-Chree
came one day most unexpectedly. An aero-
plane which had been out on a scouting trip
was suddenly sighted, approaching at top
speed, pursued by a German Fokker. The

AERIAL ATTACKS ON SHIPS AT SEA

aeroplanes were flying at a high altitude. The
British aircraft had managed to elude the
enemy, and by a daring volplane landed safely
on the water beside the mother ship. Every-
thing was in readiness to retrieve the aeroplane,
which was quickly hoisted on board. The Ger-
man Fokker was not content to give up the
chase and continued to fly above the Ben-Ma-
Ckree at a comparatively low altitude, drop-
ping deadly bombs. Such an attack from the _
sky is extremely daunting. Any one of the
bombs, which described' black vertical lines
against the sky, might bring instant disaster.

The bombing aeroplane succeeded in passing
directly above the ship several times. Some of
the bombs struck the water so near the vessel
that the splash of the waves thrown up^by the
explosion wet the steamer's bridge. The entire
crew stood manfully at their posts. The only
hope of escape lay in driving the ship full speed
ahead in a series of mad zig-zags, a course, which
the aeroplane could not follow. The anti-air-
craft guns at last succeeded in driving away the
enemy, with what damage could not be known.

After a thrilling experience of this kind, the
French officer remarks, the men were almost
overcome with sleep, so exhausting had the ex-
perience been both on mind and body. The
pilot who had been chased in by the German
Fokker was, by the way, a very interesting
character. In less troublous times he had been
a famous jockey, and his thrilling race against

time for the mother ship was in a sense a
familiar experience. Three days after this ex-
perience while on a very daring scouting and
bombing trip, a shot from the enemy struck his
motor, forcing him to descend, when he was
made a prisoner by the Turks.

Weapons and Methods of Attacks on Ships

■f ATTACKING WITH BOMBS

The weapons employed for attacking ships
are bombs, torpedoes, and guns of fairly large
caliber. Up to the summer of 1916 all the at-
tacks on ships were made with bombs. In
July, 1916,^there was registered one case of a
British naval aviator who, according to reliable
reports, made four flights over the land into the
Sea of Marmora in an aeroplane under which a
Whitehead torpedo was secured, and sank four
Turkish vessels, using 14-inch torpedoes, weigh-
ing 731 pounds each. For this service he was
given the Distinguished Service Order.

While this was the first case of actual
destroying of ships by means of torpedoes
dropped by aeroplanes, the idea was by no
means new. Rear-Admiral Bradley A. Fiske,
U. S. N.» patented a device for launching tor-
pedoes from aeroplanes in July, 1912. Cap-
tain Alessandro Guidoni of the Royal Italian
Navy made experiments for a number of years
in dropping weights from aeroplanes with a
view of eventually developing a large aero-

A ship makes a

or dirigible. This photograph shows a British destroyer as it looked t
wbo photographed it from the air.

14

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

plane for launching the standard-size torpe-
does.

How the Revolutionary Leavitt Torpedo Was

Developed

Early in January, 1917, the civilian leaders
of the movement to develop our national de-
fenses, after taking stock of the military re-
sources of the United States, came to the con-
clusion that, owing to our small army and navy
and general unpreparedness, the only hope of
success on the part of the United States in case
of war would be in developing some powerful
new instrument which would give us predomin-
ance. A committee consisting of Messrs. Alan
R. Hawley, Henry A. Wise Wood, Rear Ad-
miral Robert E. Peary, and the writer made an
investigation with the purpose of finding one
or more new instruments, the value of which
would be so great that they would give pre-
dominance to the side which employed them.
After looking over the field of inventions, the
committee came to the conclusion that the tor-
pedoplane patented by Rear- Admiral Bradley
A. Fiske in July, 1912, was a revolutionary in-
vention of tremendous possibilities.

The committee then asked Admiral Fiske to
deliver an address on the subject, which he did
at the Aeronautic Conference held in connec-
tion with the First Pan-American Aeronautic
Exposition, Grand Central Palace, New York
City. Admiral Fiske's address on that occa-
sion is printed elsewhere. It created great in-
terest, and, as a result, a fund was set aside for
the purpose of defraying the expenses of the
experiments of developing the torpedoplane.
Admiral Fiske was asked to be the chairman of
a committee to supervise the work of develop-
ing the torpedoplane, and he appointed the fol-
lowing as members of his committee : Alan R.
Hawley, Henry A. Wise Wood, Rear Ad-
miral Peary, John Hays Hammond, Jr., F.
Trubee Davison, Schuyler Skaats Wheeler,
Frank M. Leavitt, Lawrence B. Sperry, and
the writer.

The committee had the choice between con-
centrating its efforts in developing large sea-
planes and training aviators to drop full-sized

Whitehead torpedoes which weigh 2000 pounds,
and measure 21 inches in diameter and 17%
feet in length, or to develop a torpedo small
enough to be carried by any of the two-passen-
ger flying boats or hydroaeroplanes now in gen-
eral use. The committee came to the conclu-
sion that, owing to the fact that there were very
few aviators in the United States who had any
experiences in piloting a large seaplane and,
owing to the time that would be required to
train men to drop such heavy weights from an
aeroplane, it would be best to concentrate ef-
forts in developing a small torpedo, weighing
less than 200 pounds, which could be dropped
from the average two-passenger seaplane by al-
most any aviator. This would make it possible
in time of war to press into service for launch-
ing of torpedoes, almost every civilian naval
and military aviator who had had sufficient ex-
perience to pilot a machine.

At first it seemed impossible to develop an
automobile torpedo weighing less than 200
pounds, having a range of about 1000 yards at
a speed of about 25 knots, but the committee
was willing to have experiments carried out re-
gardless of the possibility of failure, and three
leading experts on torpedoes promptly took up
the work and soon advised the committee that
such a torpedo could and would be developed.
The committee was led to decide by the results
of the excellent work of Volunteer Aerial Coast
Patrol Unit No. 1, which led hundreds of other
college men to interest themselves in aeronau-
tics. It was realized that hundreds of men
would follow the example of the members of
Unit No. 1, and would make it possible, in case
of war, to quickly organize squadrons of avia-
tors equipped with torpedoplanes sufficiently
powerful to sink destroyers, transports, and
other nonarmored ships. Larger torpedoes
will of course, sink armored ships.

John Hays Hammond, Jr., is meeting the
difficulty of launching large torpedoes from sea-
planes by his revolutionary invention which
makes it possible to direct the torpedo to the tar-
get from an aeroplane, by wireless.

At the date of writing there are three differ-
ent torpedoes, one of which, being developed
by Mr. Frank H. Leavitt, the expert of the E.

AERIAL ATTACKS ON SHIPS AT SEA

15

W. Bliss Company, who is responsible for the
efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo, is ready
for test. The details of this torpedo and the
others being developed will probably be made
public while this book is on the presses.

Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske's paper

gives an excellent idea of the revolutionary
value of this new development. Since these ex-
periments began, members of the committee
have received many expressions from naval au-
thorities stating that the torpedoplane will
revolutionize naval warfare.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER III
THE TORPEDOPLANE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES

By Rear- Admiral Bbadley A. Fiske, U. S. X.

Messrs. Alan R. Hawley, Henry A. Wise
Wood, and Henry Woodhouse, have kindly
expressed the thought that the "Torpedo-
plane" which I patented in July, 1912, is
destined to become a dominant instrument in
war, giving a marked advantage to the side
which employs it and a corresponding disad-
vantage to the other side. They have also
thoughtfully pointed out that, having fallen so
much behind other countries in naval prepared-
ness, we can only hope to catch up by including
in our naval program the most effective new in-

ventions, and that the "torpedoplane" might,
under favorable conditions, make a $20,000
aeroplane a worthy match of a $20,000,000 bat-
tle cruiser.

It is said that strategy directs the conduct
of war, and that it uses logistics to provide the
men, guns, and other details that the plans of
strategy demand. This analysis is correct so
far as it goes; but it omits the factor that in-
spires both strategy and logistics, the factor
called "invention."

In the United States, and in most other
countries, we have come to regard invention as
applicable to mechanism only. But to regard
invention in that way only is to regard it in a
very dim light and to fail to see to how many
other things invention is applied to.

With the use of invention in mechanism we

That "the torpedoplane will revolutieiniw naval wurfare" is n.iw being
admitted bv naval authorities. The simple torpedo launching device
developed for Admiral Fiske's torpedoplane is shown herewith. The details
of the torpedo itself, which has been developed for national defense under
the auspices of a group of patriotic workers for aerial preparedness, will
not be mode public for obvious reasons.

THE TORPEDOPLANE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES

17

are very familiar; but it may be pointed out
that before the mechanism itself can be in-
vented, the idea of inventing the mechanism
must first be invented. Before Ericsson in-
vented the mechanism which we call the Moni-
tor, he invented the idea of producing such a
thing. Before Alexander started to invade the
rest of the world, before Ca;sar started for
Gaul, before Frederick started for Silesia, be-
fore Moltke started for Austria and France,
before Washington started for Yorktown, be-
fore any policy, or any new line of strategy,
or any new enterprise whatever was begun the
idea was first conceived by the mind; that is,
invented. Shakespeare recognized this truth
when he exclaimed, "Oh, for a muse that would
ascend the highest heaven of invention!"

The most startling interjection into warfare
of a newly invented thing was the Ericsson
Monitor. Comparatively few of the people
living now remember the tumultuous joy that
ran through the Northern States, when the
news was flashed that the Monitor had defeated
the Merrimac near Hampton Roads, March 9,
1862 ; and even those of us who are old enough
to remember that fact fail to realize what a tre-
mendous menace the ironclad Merrimac was.
Leaving the Norfolk navy yard on Saturday
morning, March 8, she soon rammed and sank
the U. S.- S. Cumberland, which carried more
men and guns than she; and, a very few hours
afterwards, destroyed the U. S. S. Congress,
also carrying more men and guns than she.
Had the Merrimac continued her career as suc-
cessfully as she began it, she would have
destroyed the navy of the Northern States, and
brought about the success of the Confederacy.
In other words, the monitor saved the
UNITED STATES.

The reason why the Merrimac and Monitor
were so successful was because each brought
into battle a weapon which the other side did
not know how to defend itself against.

That the torpedoplane will become an im-
portant factor in naval warfare in the near fu-
ture, many people have no doubt. It is a
scheme whereby the regular Whitehead auto
torpedo may be launched from an aeroplane as
effectively as it is launched from a destroyer.

As you may know, a destroyer goes toward
her enemy at a speed which can rarely be as
high as thirty knots an hour, and launches a
torpedo from her deck into the water; and by
that act of launching throws back a lever on the
torpedo, called the starting lever, which causes
the propelling mechanism of the torpedo to go
ahead full speed. The torpedo, therefore, after
reaching the water, goes along in the direc-
tion in which it is pointed ; and, if it is pointed
correctly, it hits its target ship below the water
line, and usually sinks or disables her.

The scheme which I submit for your consid-
eration and is herewith illustrated needs
little explanation. The aviator approaches his

Torpedo mounted on small scout seaplane of triplane type.
Pulling the lever releases the torpedo which is securely held
under the seaplane-
target from a great distance and high up in the
air; and when, say, six or seven miles away, he
volplanes toward the water, runs above the sur-
face of the water a short distance, heading tow-
ard his target, and when ready simply pulls a
lever. The action of pulling the lever releases
the torpedo which is rigidly held under the aero-
plane, and at the same time throws back the
starting lever, with the result that the torpedo
falls in the water in exactly the same way as if
it had been dropped from a destroyer, instead
of an aeroplane.

I have seen it stated in print several times
that Captain Alessandro Guidoni, of the Italian
Navy, tried out the scheme two or three years

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Model D-I, 300 norse power twin-motored Galldudrt

ago, and hit the target nine times out of ten at
a distance of 3000 yards. Not having an aero-
plane large enough to carry a heavy, long-dis-
tance torpedo he used a light short-distance
torpedo suitable for the size of the aero-
plane.

I received private information from Europe
about a year ago that a lieutenant in the British
Navy made four flights over the land into the
Sea of Marmora in an aeroplane under which a
Whitehead torpedo was secured, and sank four
Turkish vessels, using 14-inch torpedoes, weigh-
ing 731 pounds each. For this service, he was
given the Distinguished Service Order. A
short time ago, I got a verification of this news
from a wholly different source, and I also re-
ceived further information, which is of absolute
reliability, that one of the belligerent countries
is taking means to use this plan on a large
scale.

I have talked about the scheme to many
naval officers and many aviators. The naval
officers agree with me that it would be very dif-
ficult indeed for the guns of a ship to hit a tor-
pedoplane, for the reason that accurate firing
of guns from a rolling ship at an aeroplane, es-
pecially if that aeroplane is neither overhead or
on the surface of the water, is almost impos-
sible. It is a much more difficult matter than

firing at aeroplanes overhead from a stationary
platform on land.

The greatest difficulty in firing from a roll-
ing ship at anything near the surface of the
water, is to find the range at which to fire; and
a rapidly approaching, ill-defined aeroplane
makes finding and correcting the range almost
impossible. The sudden changes in the height
of a torpedoplane as she would swoop down
would increase the difficulty tremendously.

Besides, in a contest between a torpedoplane
and a ship, in which the torpedoplane seeks to
strike the ship below the water, the ship, if she
is struck there, is disabled, if not destroyed;
while the torpedoplane can be shot full of holes
without much damage, unless hit in a vital
place.

The aviators tell me that they see no prac-
tical difficulties whatever in doing their part of
the work.

For an attack on battleships such as might
approach our coast, the large size torpedo,
weighing over a ton, would he best; and this
can be fired successfully from a distance of six
sea miles or more. For carrying torpedoes like
this, we now have in this country a number of
aeroplanes large enough for the task; and this,
I think, gives the most ready and practical
means of defense that we can provide at present.

THE TORPEDOPLANE AND ITS POSSIBILITIES

19

But battleships are not the only ships that
would be sent against us ; the battleships would
be accompanied by a vast array of other ves-
sels, which are very important, such as destroy-
ers, colliers, ammunition ships, scout cruisers,
and transports. These vessels are lightly built
and have thin sides, so that light torpedoes
would be thoroughly effective. This would be
especially the case for attack on destroyers, be-
cause their gun fire is not accurate. Tor-
pedoplanes could, therefore, with comparative
safety approach them, and discharge their tor-
pedoes from a distance of a few hundred yards.

In our present state of ..Unpftparedness, it
would be a great thiirg~if we comii bring out
something as revolutionary. and effective as the
Monitor and that could be got ready in the
limited time that may be granted us. We can-
not hope to catch up to any of the leading pow-
ers in ship or submarine-building, as their out-
put is enormous compared to ours and their ex-
perience greater. They have outdistanced us
in naval preparedness, especially in the air, for
some of them have as many as 10,000 aviators,
while we have not yet 200 in the Army and

Navy combined. We are far behind, but we can
catch up if we try, and our national security
could be brought up to quite a hopeful condition
by establishing say fifty torpedoplanes at each
of the ten important naval districts, and on
aeroplane motner ships, which would go with
the fleet. Su^Kin act would give us a quickly
made and inexpensive weapon for defense.
I have talked abflut this tojnany naval of-
-rficers and aviators. TheylaH say that it is a
goojcL-seheme," and point out that torpedo-

I

lanes <|^either side during the Jutland sea bat-
Jr would have given tremendous % ad vantage

over the "other side;- many also say > that our
navy should adopt, this device and immediately
put it into service. Hope that it may be de-
veloped in Ameriqst as w$ll as abroad is given
by the action of the Aero Club of America and
the National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission
which are making plans for. developing the tor-
pedoplane in a practical way. As these patri-
otic organizations always, carry out everything
they undertake, f^eel confident that we will
have torpedoplanes for the defense of our
coasts in the near future.

Since writing the above article, the details of
the sinking of the British steamer Gena, by a
torpedoplane, have been officially announced
both by the English and German governments.
A dispatch from London dated May 2, states
that the admiralty announces that the British
steamer Gena, 2784 tons was sunk on Mav 1st
by a torpedo discharged from a German sea-
plane off Aldeburg (Suffolk, England). All
hands were saved. Another seaplane con-
cerned in the attack was brought down by the
gunfire from the Gena and its crew made pris-
oners. An official announcement from Berlin
(via London), dated May 2, says: "A few
seaplanes attacked on Tuesday morning enemy
merchant ships before the Thames and sank a
steamer of about 3000 tons. One of our ma-
chines failed to return and is supposed to have
been lost."

In a letter to the London "Times" of May
9, 1917, Admiral Sir Reginald Custance says,
"Why can we not intercept the submarines off

German ports? Because the German High
Sea Fleet can issue and destroy any small ships
engaged in blocking the exits to their ports.
They can do this, because our massed fleet can-
not cover our light craft. ... If the massed
(German) fleet is destroyed, the action of the
submarine is weakened, since its exit is impeded
by the stnall surface craft and submarines of
the victor, which are then free to press in to gun
range in the enemy's waters, with mines, nets
and everv new device."

This seems to mean that, if the German High
Sea Fleet could be kept away or destroyed,
British small craft could prevent German sub-
marines from coming out. To keep off or de-
stroy the German High Sea Fleet, near the
German coast, some device that cannot be sunk
by mine or torpedo, but that can deliver a de-
structive blow is apparently required. The
torpedoplane, used in large numbers, is most
respectfully suggested.

r hydrouer»p];tno constructed by the United Slates Navy, equipped with

Curtis.'

CHAPTER IV
ATTACKING SHIPS WITH AIRCRAFT GUNS

By Rear-Admiral Bradley A. Fiske, U. S. N.

[During the first eighteen months of the Great War there were several reports of ships being under fire
from guns mounted on dirigibles. The details of these attacks, however, were never made public. In the early
summer of 1916, when aeroplanes equipped with machine guns were put in use generally to perform the
functions of infantry in flying low and attacking troops, there came a more general employment of guns
for attacking ships. The guns were of small caliber. Since then several guns as high as three-inches in
caliber have been developed, and large aeroplanes capable of carrying from 1500 to 5000 pounds of useful
load have been constructed and successfully tested. Therefore the development to be expected in the near
future is the equipping of large aeroplanes with large caliber guns.

A seaplane equipped with a three-inch gun is the most powerful and economic factor in sight for
submarine hunting. Flying at a speed of from seventy to eighty miles per hour, an air cruiser represents an
extraordinary combination of power and mobility- Rear-Admiral Bradley A. Fiske in a report made to the
Aero Club of America in March, 1917, brought out very strikingly the fact that one hundred battleplanes
carrying three-inch guns would afford defensive power equivalent to 60,000 rifles. Admiral Fiske's report reads
in part as follows :]

A Henojst twin-motored seaplane, equipped with 2 Roberts 100 horse-power motors.

ATTACKING SHIPS WITH AIRCRAFT GUNS

21

Quickest Way to Prepare Defense of United

States Against Invasion Is to Develop

Large and Powerful Battleplanes

In view of the backward state of our de-
fenses, especially on the land, I would like to
suggest the advisability of considering whether
it is not possible to devise some means that is
powerful and easily gotten, in order to supple-
ment our present means : something that can do
for our armv and navv service in a measure what
the Monitor did in 1862. It was the Monitor
that cast the deciding vote in our Civil War.

As the submarine threatens to cast the de-
ciding vote in the present war, and as the Moni-
tor has been expanded into the dreadnought, it
may be profitable to ask what is the inherent
cause of the efficacy of those weapons.
Clearly it is the same cause as makes any
weapon efficacious; that is, concentration of
great power in a small space, combined with
great mobility and assured control. The com-
bination permits of the application of great
force on a given spot at a given time.

In 1911, 1 published an article called "Naval
Power," in the United States Naval Institute,
in which I pointed out this fact, and suggested
what a battleship on land could accomplish, if
such a thing could be constructed. The
Popular Science Monthly republished this sug-
gestion in November, 1915, and a few months
later the so-called British tanks appeared,
which are small land battleships.

Now the unevenness of the ground is a great
obstacle in the way of making land battleships
very large and fast, and seems to prevent
armies from using units as powerful and swift
as navies use. This is unfortunate for two rea-
sons. One reason is that the length of our
boundaries on the ocean and on our Northern
and Southern frontiers is so great, and the
average distance to the boundary from places
within the country is so great, that it would be
highly advantageous for us to be able to move
powerful units at great speed; another reason
is, the natural inventiveness of our people would
enable them to produce very powerful land bat-
tleships, if the difficulties were not absolutely
insuperable as they seem to be.

My life in the navy brought me into intimate
contact with all the advances in naval construc-
tion — from the little Saratoga in which I made
my first cruise as cadet midshipman to the
superdreadnought Florida, which was my last
flagship. The military value of concentration
was, of course, impressed unceasingly upon
me, and with it a realization of the fact that the
main aim of strategy and tactics is to bring a
preponderating force to bear on a given point
before the enemy can prevent it. To do this,
we need concentration of power in as few
units as possible, and ability to move those
units as rapidly and certainly as possible.

POWER, MOBILITY AND CONTROL ARE THE PRIME
AGENCIES OF THE MILITARY ART.

Now, at the present time the unit in all
armies is the soldier and his musket. We seem
tied down to that slow and feeble little unit.
But are we really? The navy seemed tied
down to the little sailing frigate; so much so
that even after the Monitor's achievements in
our Civil War, we returned to the sailing
frigate. The competition of nations, however,
forced us to take up larger units, and now we
have the Pennsylvania.

Is there no way in which this great inventive
and constructive nation can get some more
powerful and mobile unit than the soldier and
his rifle? Can we not get more defensive use-
fulness out of the intelligent collegian, tech-
nician, or chauffeur than by marching him in a
regiment with a little musket in his hand? Is
there no device by means of which large units
of power can be carried which is not subject to
the limitations of speed and size that restrict a
land battleship to small dimensions?

Yes, and that device is now being used in
Europe, after having been designed and manu-
factured in the United States. It is called the
battleplane. Such a device recently carried
twenty-seven passengers, and another, an air
cruiser, carried 3500 pounds of crew and equip-
ment. Some of the largest battleplanes are
being constructed in the United States, and one
of the aeroplane manufacturers states that he
can easily build a battleplane capable of carry-
ing and launching a full-size torpedo weighing
2500 pounds.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

If battleplanes have a field of usefulness in
Europe, where the distances are very small and
where the organization, training, and strategical
employment of large armies has reached a high
state of development, do they not have a much
wider field in the United States, where the dis-
tances are relatively enormous, and where the
organization, training, and strategical employ-
ment of large armies are arts almost unknown?
Is it not possible that an immediate and
strenuous development of battleplanes might
save us from invasion, or might enable us to
help the Allies effectively, as the Monitor saved
us from the Merrimac?

In case our fleet is defeated in the Atlantic
during the next year, we shall not have an army

that could stand up against any European
army that might land on our shores. But if
we had a division of, say one hundred battle-
planes near New York, costing about three
million dollars, we could certainly prevent the
disembarkation, transit in boats to the shore,
and landing, of any force of soldiers, especially
if the battleplanes were assisted by, say, two
hundred small aeroplanes, dropping bombs.
Similar divisions at other points, including one
at tlie Panama Canal, could perform similar
services, and the great speed of the air craft
would enable each division to guard a long ex-
tent of coast. A division of one hundred bat-
tleplanes could go from New York to the Capes
of the Chesapeake in three or four hours.

ATTACKING SHIPS WITH AIRCRAFT GUNS

Twin-motored

constructed by New York A6ro Construction Co.

The size and power of the aeroplane has al-
ready gone far beyond the limits set for its
possible development by certain engineers only
three years ago. The practical difficulties of
making it larger still are quite apparent; yet,
nevertheless, no theoretical limits to its size and
power have yet been accepted by aeronauts.
That the aeroplane is now the best single
weapon against the submarine, is conceded;
(hat it will rapidly advance in size and power,
is the mature belief of many aeronauts.
Should we not therefore immediately investi-
gate its capabilities, not only as a scout and ac-
cessory, but as a major instrument of warfare ;
not only for carrying small guns, but guns of
as great caliber as — say 8-inch? The energy

The Curtlss Mode] H-13 Flying Boat,
constructed fortlic Dotted States Navy,
a wing span of nearly S3 feet, and
a capacity for carrying a
useful load of 1556 pounds.
The boat is expected to at-
tain a speed of
eighty -five miles

of 100 3-inch projectiles is equal to that of
60,000 musket bullets, even near the muzzle;
and is greater at long ranges.

I do not suggest the abolition of the soldier
and his musket; but neither do I suggest the
abolition of the boat pulled by the oars of row-
ers. I merely suggest that, as the boat pulled
by rowers was superseded for large operations
by the sailing ship, and as the sailing ship was
superseded by the more mobile steamer with
broadside guns, and as this type of warship was
superseded by the turret ships, and as the tur-
ret ship has been expanded into a superdread-
nought, so the soldier and his musket may be
superseded for important operations by the im-
measurably more powerful and mobile battle-
plane.

If so, the more quickly we act, the better.
"Hindenburg never sleeps."

The Ark Kot/al, tin- British aeroplane ship which up* rated with tl

CHAPTER V
AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

The naval air service is divided into three
distinct, separate branches, whose functions are
quite different, and which may be designated as:
(1) The Offensive Air Service, which consists
of the squadrons of seaplanes, stationed on sea-
plane carriers and aeronautic bases, which are
used for air raids, independent of the fleet; also
of dirigibles, which operate from bases; (2)
The Auxiliary Air Service of the fleet, includ-
ing seaplanes and kite balloons, which operate
with the fleet, using ships as bases; and (3)
The Aerial Const Patrol, which operates from
naval stations and naval bases. Aircraft
mother ships are, therefore, important.

The report of the Jutland battle established
two facts: (1) That the German fleet planned
its move on information obtained from Zep-
pelins as to the whereabouts and composition
and disposition of the British naval forces; (2)
that the British forces were greatly assisted in
their action by a seaplane sent up from the sea-
plane carrier, the Kngadine.

Admiral Sir David licatty's report, dated
June 19, 1010, to Admiral Sir John Jellicne,
G.C.B., G.C.V.O., Commander in Chief of the
Grand Fleet, reporting the action in the North
Sea on May 31, 1910, says:

"From a report from 'Galatea' at 2:25 p. m.,

it was evident that the enemy force was con-
siderable, and not merely an isolated unit of
light cruisers, so at 2:15 p. m., I ordered Enga-
dine (Lieut-Commr. C. G. Robinson) to send
up a seaplane and scout to N.N.E. This order
was carried out very quickly, and by 3:08 p. M.
a seaplane, with Flight Lieutenant F. J. Rut-
land, R. X., as pilot, and Assistant Paymaster
G. S. Trewin, X. X., as observer, was well under
way; her first reports of the enemy were re-
ceived by the Engadine about 3:30 p.m.
Owing to clouds it was necessary to fly low, and
in order to identify four enemy light cruisers
the seaplane had to fly at a height of 900 feet
within 3000 yards of them, the light cruisers
opening fire on her with every gun that would
bear. This in no way interfered with the clar-
ity of their reports, and both Flight Lieutenant
Rutland and Assistant Paymaster Trewin are
to be congratulated on their achievement, which
indicates that seaplanes under such circum-
stances are of distinct value.

"The work of Kngadine appears to have been
most praiseworthy throughout, and of great
value. Lieut.-Commr. C. G. Robinson de-
serves great credit for the skilful and seaman-
like manner in which he handled his ship. He
actually towed Warrior for seventy-five miles

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

A British Short

between 8:40 p. m. May 31, and 7:15
A. M. June 1, and was instrumental
in saving the lives of her ship's com-
pany."

The seaplane used on the British
side in the Jutland battle was a
"Short" seaplane, equipped with a
225 horse-power Sunbeam motor.
The machine was put overboard
and taken back on board the ship
by means of a crane, which is the
only method so far employed in Eu-
ropean navies.

In view of the importance of this
naval engagement, and the part
played in it by the seaplane, it
well to point out the two main les-
sons learned through this engagement: (1)
that it is absolutely necessary to have seaplane
carriers with the fleet; (2) that the seaplane
carriers must be capable of manceuvering with
the fleet, keeping up with it in speed.

The reports of Vice- Admiral Reginald H. S.
Bacon, K.C.B., C.V.O., D.S.O., commanding
the Dover Patrol, reporting operations off the
Belgian coast between August 22 and Novem-
ber 19, 1915, says: "Throughout these opera-
tions attacks have been made on our vessels by
the enemy's aircraft, but latterly the vigilance
of our Dunkirk Aerodrome, under Wing Com-
mander A. M. Longmore, has considerably cur-
tailed their activity."

Under the heading of "Aerial Attacks on
Ships," there will be found elsewhere in this
book reports of aerial attacks on ships, which
give further facts regarding the important work
done by aircraft carried on mother-ships.

The squadron which operated in the Eastern
Mediterranean, between the time of the landing
on the Gallipoli Peninsula in April, 1915, and
the evacuation in December, 1915-January,
1916, had several seaplane mother-ships, and
many kite-balloon ships. General Sir Charles
Munro, in his report respecting the operations
of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Forces,
includes among the commendations for services
in action the officers and men of the Royal
Naval Air Service.

Another amazing report of the activities of

! being lowered to the water from the deck of a

seaplane carrier.

the seaplanes connected with the British Ex-
peditionary Forces is found in the Turkish re-
port of May 4, 1916, in which it is stated in con-
nection with the surrender of the British force
at Kut, as follows: "They (the British)
first threw down sacks of flour from aeroplanes,
but Turkish forces put an end to this, shooting
down one after another of these old British
machines." This was confirmed later in the
year by a report from the general officer com-
manding in Mesopotamia, and is worthy of note
that between April 11 and 29, 1916, aeroplanes
and seaplanes dropped 18,800 pounds of food
into Kut. The amazing part of the feat is that
the seaplanes, which are water craft, ^ew over
the desert carrying the food in large quanti-
ties.

The report of General Sir John Maxwell,
commanding officer in Egypt, recorded that the
seaplane carrier Anne was torpedoed off
Smyrna early in the year, during an armistice,
presumably by a German submarine officer
who was ignorant of the armistice with the
Turks.

C. C. Witiner, the American aviator who
trained Russian naval aviators in the beginning
of the war tells of the Russian seaplane carriers
as follows:

When the need of aerial protection far from the
coast became evident, the Russian authorities took
the two fast steamers built for the trade between
Odessa and Egypt, fitted them with false decks fore

26

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

and aft for launching and receiving aeroplanes, and
sent the two ships with seven aeroplanes each, to
afford the aerial protection needed. These steamers
were capable of a speed of twenty knots an hour and
seven aeroplanes could he snugly accommodated on
each. The machines were launched by lowering them
to the water with cranes, and taken aboard the same
way. After a little practice, this can be done very
quickly. I saw seven aeroplanes launched and in
flight fourteen minutes after the order was given.

On one occasion, when the Russian Feet bombarded
the Uosphorus, six aeroplanes, each equipped with
two forty-pound bombs, were launched within fifteen
minutes from one of the aeroplane ships. Forty min-
utes later they commenced to return to the ship for
more bombs. They landed on the lee side of the ship,
took their loads — a bomb on each side of the machine,
connected to the releasing device, and soared aloft.

An official report dated January 11, 1917,
stated that the British seaplane carrier Bcn-Ma-
Chree was sunk by gunfire in the Kastelorizo
Harbor (Asia Minor). The Ben-Ma-Chree
was a 2550 ton ship, formerly used as a pleasure
steamer between Liverpool and the Isle of Man.
She was built in 1908 by -Vickers, at Barrow,
•was a triple-screw steamer, with a speed of
twenty-five knots, having accommodations for

about 2000 passengers and crew. Kastelorizo
is an island to the east of Rhodes, off the Asia
Minor coast. Early in 1916 a French detach-
ment landed in the island in connection with
some Allied operations against Adalia, and it
has been used ever since as a naval base for the
Allied squadrons.

Another seaplane carrier, the Hermes was
sunk by a U-boat in the early part of the war,
off the English coast.

The accompanying illustration shows the Ark
Royal, which operated with the Allied sea fleets
at the Dardanelles with two seaplanes on the
deck. The nature of its work was described in
the following report:

The bombardment of the Dardanelles has been
greatly assisted by the cooperation of seaplanes which
were sent thither on the British Navy's new hangar
ship, the Ark Royal.

Numerous reconnaissances were carried out over the
Turkish fortifications in order to locate concealed
batteries. This work proved to be rather dangerous
as the seaplanes had to fly very low so as to get the
exact location of the enemy's guns and the Ottomans
trained a murderous fire upon the British airmen.

One seaplane, whose pilot was Lieut. Garnett and
whose observer was Lieu tenant- Commander William-

17.S.S. Seattle, an armored cruiser, has been fitted w'th
shown in this picture. The Seattle was formerly the IViw
battleships is to be named for the State.

r quarterdeck for landing seaplanes, three of which are
name was changed last December, as one of the new

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

27

Ely making the first flight from th

a Curtiss biplane.

son, became unstable on March 4 and dived nose on
into the sea. Both officers were injured.

Lieut. Douglas, reconnoitering at close quarters in
another seaplane, was wounded, but managed to re-
turn safely. Seaplane No. 172, commanded by Flight
Lieut. Bromat, with Lieut. Brown as observer, was hit
twenty -eight times. Seaplane No. 7, Flight Lieut.
Kershaw and Petty Officer Merchant being the crew,
was hit eight times in locating concealed positions.

The Ark Royal convoy to the aeroplanes and sea-
planes, is equipped with every appliance for necessary
repairs and for maintenance of the numerous aircraft
she carries.

There are also shown herewith views of
the U. S. armored cruiser North Carolina,
which has been a seaplane carrier since June,
1915, when it took the place of the U. S. S.
Mississippi, which was the seaplane carrier of
the United States Navy until it was sold to
Greece in 1915.

During the overhauling of the North Caro-
lina, at the close of 1916, the U. S. armored
cruiser Seattle became a seaplane carrier. The
North Carolina 1 4,500 tons, 23,000 horse-power,
twin screws, equipped with 20 guns is of the re-
serve force Atlantic Fleet; the Seattle 14,500
tons, 23,000 horse-power, twin screws, equipped
with 20 guns, is also an armored cruiser.

American Aviators First to Fly from and
Alight on Deck of Ship

American aviators were the first to alight on
and fly from the deck of a ship. On November
14, 1910, Eugene Ely flew from the deck of the
U. S. S. Birmingham, and on January 18, 1911,
flew and landed on the deck of the U. S. S.
Pennsylvania, at San Francisco, also making
the return flight from the ship. These flights
were made with Curtiss aeroplanes equipped
with wheels.

On January 26, 1911, Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss
made the first successful flight ever made with a
hydroaeroplane, starting from the water and
alighting on the water without accident. Henri
Fabre had succeeded in rising from the water
on March 28, 1910, near Martigues, France,
and in covering a distance of about 1000 feet
at a height of about six feet, but met with a mis-
hap in landing. On May 17. 1910, he made a
better flight, about one mile, at a height of thirty
feet, but on landing, the machine was again
wrecked. Mr. Curtiss on February 17, 1911,
at San Diego, flew alongside of the U. S. S.
Pennsylvania, and his hydroaeroplane was
hoisted on board by the ship's crane. After the
reception accorded to him, the hydroaeroplane

28

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

was again dropped overboard by the crane, and
was flown from there back to the shore.

On November 24, 1911, Lieut. John Rodgers,
United States Navy, flew a Burgess- Wright
hydroaeroplane at Newport, Rhode Island,
rising to a height of 400 feet, circled the L T . S.
S. Missouri, then landed in the lee of the U. S.
S. Ohio, and was lifted on board bv a crane.

The first experiment in starting from the
deck of the ship outside of the United States
took place on January 10, 1912, when Lieut.
C. R. Lawson of the British Army Aviation
Section started from H. M. S. Africa, anchored
in Sheerness Harbor, in a ''Short" biplane,
equipped with wheels and skids. The machine
was hoisted on board bv a crane, and the start
was made from a platform constructed on the
fore part of the ship. On May 8, 1912, when
British naval aviators took part in the naval
review at Weymouth, England, Commander
Charles Rumney Samson made a flight from
the platform built on the deck of the battleship
Hiberiiia with a Henri Farman biplane,
equipped with pontoons and wheels, as the
ship was steaming up to Portsmouth.

The French were first to set aside a ship to
be used as a seaplane carrier, in 1912. This
hangar ship, La Foudre, was used for many
experiments, employing different types of ma-
chines, including a "Voisin Canard" operated
by Captain Cayla, a Nieuport, operated by En-
sign Delage; and a Curtiss hydroaeroplane,
operated by Frank Barra. These experiments
took place at St. Raphael.

Since then all the first- and second-class
European nations have adopted seaplane car-
riers and kite-balloon carriers.

Seaplane Carriers vs. Having Seaplanes on

Board of Cruisers

At the time of the early experiments in
launching aeroplanes from ships in the United
States and Great Britain, the world's naval
authorities were divided into two camps, one
holding that it would be better to make the ship
self-sufficient by providing space for launching
and landing seaplanes on battleships, with avia-
tors on each ship ; the other that it would be bet-

ter to have regular seaplane carriers, which would
supply the entire squadron with an air service.

The results to date would show that the
American authorities were more far-sighted.
The final decision will depend entirely on the
results of a test of the American system in ac-
tual naval operations.

It would be illogical to expect a cruiser in
action to slow down in order to hoist an aero-
plane overboard. It might prove very danger-
ous to it; but it seems quite possible that
the cruiser could launch a seaplane by means
of a device, without slowing down, such as the
one developed by Captain W. Irving Cham-
bers, United States Navy.

There is another advantage in having each
cruiser equipped with its own seaplanes, since
it makes each cruiser independent of the sea-
plane carrier, which may be sunk by the enemy,
depriving the entire squadron of the valuable
services of aircraft.

Captain Chambers developed a catapult
operated by compressed air, and on November
12, 1912, for the first time, launched an aero-
plane from a ship in what may be considered a
scientific way. The catapult was described by
Captain Chambers at the time as follows:

"The catapult is so small that it occupies
little space; it can even be mounted for use on
top of a turret, it can be transported to any
location on the ship, and it can be readily dis-
mounted and stowed away clear of the guns.

"Compressed air is used for the power, as all
ships carrying torpedoes are supplied with air
compressors. When preparing the apparatus
for use, the air is pumped, to a suitable pressure
into a receiver, which is connected with a small
cylinder conveniently located on deck. The
piston of the cylinder has a stroke of about 40
inches, and the piston rod is connected with a
small wooden car by means of a wire rope pur-
chase which multiplies the travel of the piston
to any desired extent or to any limit fixed by
the travel of the car on its tracks.

"The aeroplane, of course, rests upon the
car, and, when a flight takes place, both are
projected from the tracks together in about one
and one-half seconds, the pressure being auto-
matically and gradually accelerated throughout

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

29

the stroke. The car drops into the water when
free from the tracks, and is hauled on board by
a rope attached to it."

The device, as used at the Washington Navy
Yard, November 12, 1912, was mounted on a
float so that the bottom of the hydroaeroplane
was not more than two feet alx>ve the water.
When discharged, the hydroaeroplane grad-
ually rose in a steady, beautiful flight, as soon
as it left the tracks, without any tendency to
seek the water.

During a previous trial, at Annapolis, the
device was mounted rigidly on a wharf. The
ear and machine were both free to lift from the
tracks during any part of the stroke, and after
the aeroplane motor had been started full speed,
the full pressure of 290 pounds was turned on
at once. On this occasion the machine reared
at about midstroke, and, as a cross wind was
blowing, the right witig was thrown up and a

cork-screw dive into the water resulted. Lieut.
Ellyson, the aviator who managed the machine
on both occasions, and whose iron nerves were
relied on to stand the shock, was fully satisfied
by this extreme test, that the shock ought not
to deter any good aviator. It was also gratify-
ing to note that no part of the machinery or
fittings was ruptured or showed any signs of
weakness.

When tried at Washington Navy Yard, No-
vember 12, the float enabled the apparatus to
be pointed toward the wind, which, however,
was nearly calm at the time. The car was held
down to the tracks by the reverse flanges and
extra wheels, and the balanced valve of the
cylinder was arranged to be gradually opened
to full power by a simple wedge-shaped cam
attached to the traveling block on the piston
head. The aeroplane was also held down to the
car by an iron strap, the ends of which were

Commander C. It. S.

Royal British Navy, leaving the deck in a Henri l-'ariwui biplane.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL, AERONAUTICS

The French seaplane

tripped automatically at the end of the stroke
by studs on the tracks.

Several preliminary tests of the device, with
sandbags to represent the weight of the aero-
plane, were made before the final test of No-

Another test was made at the Washington,
D. C, Xavy Yard on December 17, 1912, when
a Curtiss flying boat with Lieut. Ellyson,
United States Xavy, at the wheel, was launched
from the catapult mounted on a track. This

vember 12, and curves of speed and pressure test was even more satisfactory than the test of
were obtained in each case. These curves were November 12, 1912, and demonstrated the
reassuring and demonstrated the possibility of thorough practicability of this launching device

getting, by this method, the curve of velocity to
follow any trajectory desirable within practi-
cable limits

Glenn H. Curtiss introducing the hydi

for launching aeroplanes from ships. In this
case it was calculated that a speed of 40 to 42
miles an hour was necessary to support the
machine, but after the
flight it was found that
the recording apparatus
showed that the machine
had left the track at a
speed of 35.6 miles per
hour only. In appear-
ance the machine showed
a tendency to rise rather
than to fall. This dem-
onstrated that it will be
possible to shoot off aero-
planes at a lower speed,
or possibly on a shorter
track, because the tend-
ency to remain in the
air would exist for some
time, without the ac-
to tiie Navy, 1911. celerating influence of

m^H

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

the propellers, owing to the visavisa '
of the mass which leaves the track at
accelerating speed.

P. A. Surg. G. F. Cottle, U. S. N.,
in the annual sanitary report of
U.S.S. North Carolina, described the
catapult used on the North Carolina
as follows:

This apparatus is planned to hurl into
space a heavier-than-air flying machine
with the aviator seated at the wheel, and
to hurl it from the ship's deck at a speed
sufficient to allow the machine to fly away Lieutenant
from the ship without touching the water.
The apparatus is composed of a track, a compressed-
air cylinder, a car to run on the track, and a cable
connected with the piston of the air cylinder at one
end and with the car at the other end. The pilot
takes his seat, starts his motor, and when the pro-
peller is spinning at top speed the air is allowed to
rush into its cylinder, the cable is pulled upon, and
the aeroplane with its pilot is pulled along the track
toward the stern of the ship in such a manner that in
the distance of 103.25 feet it requires a velocity of
forty-five miles an hour. At the end of the track
the tripping device releases the aeroplane and by
means of its momentum plus the thrust of its rapidly
revolving propeller it leaves the car, the track, and
the ship, and flies away.

catapult,

The apparatus must have many more trials before
it can be said to be reasonably safe for the pilot, and
then must be subjected to tests at sea, with the roll-
ing and pitching of the ship as a factor before it can
become a reasonably useful and safe appurtenance of
the flying game.

Recovering Seaplanes at Sea

Recovering seaplanes at sea is a much more
difficult problem to solve than launching the sea-
planes and there is no solution at hand other
than hoisting the seaplane by means of the
usual boat crane.

The BIcriot cable guiding and engaging apparatus proponed by Louis Bleriot in 1913. The lotcli automatically grasps the cable,
once the latter is guided into Its .jaws, and releases It when the cord shown is pulled. The supporting frame is held upright by
springs, which enable it to fly back in the event of a too forcible contact with the cable. Having caught the cable while in Bight,
Pegoud is shown as resting preparatory to another launch, a method proved unpractical.

i the aeroplane pint form of the U.S.S.
), January 18, 1911. The platform wo

Ely landing — showing: plat-
form and sand baps on each
side, with ropes to check
progress.

i a tors Lieutenants E Hyson and

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

Curtiss flying boat being launched from the after deck of the U. S. S. North Carolina.

Ely's landing on the platform erected upon
the quarterdeck of the U. S. S. Pennsylvania
did not bring a solution. That could only he
repeated in calm weather and, as we know, war
takes place in all kinds of weather. To make
it possible for Ely to alight on the quarterdeck,
guide rails were placed along the platform floor,
between which the wheels should run, and across
the platform were stretched many ropes, a few
feet apart, weighted at their ends with bags of
sand. When Ely landed these weighted ropes
were gathered up in succession by hooks on his
machine which brought it to rest within a hun-
dred feet.

In 1913 Louis Bleriot, the French inventor
and aeroplane manufacturer, conducted experi-
ments intended to show the practicability of re-
covering seaplanes at sea. The device, consist-

ing of highly suspended cables to which the
aviator was to fly and hook onto by means of
an automatic clasp connected to the body of the
aeroplane, was tried at Buc, France. Pegoud,
the first man to loop-the-loop, flew the light
BleViot monoplane to the cable, engaged it with
the catching apparatus, the latch automatically
grasped the cable, and the machine came to a
standstill. Then the propeller was again
started, the latch-cord pulled to release the
machine, which flew off without mishap. This
might be repeated under very favorable condi-
tions on board of a ship, but it could not be done
under normal conditions, and it does not repre-
sent a solution to the problem of recovering sea-
planes at sea.

Using large steamers with high freeboard,
and turning them broadside to the wind, afford

The flying boat leaving
the deck of the North
Carolina. The catapult
makes it possible to se-
cure a launching speed
of close to fifty miles an
hour in a short run of
not more than fifty feet.
Thanks to the method of
controlling the air throt-
tle, there is no jar or
shock from the catapult-
ing.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

An early 191J British method of taking

plane to a ship which is still practical.

a very large area of calm water for landing
seaplanes, which can be made calmer by the
use of oil, which prevents breaking waves or
combers.

Solution Rests with Aircraft Capable of Ris-
ing Vertically from Deck of Ship

The solution rests with the aircraft capable of
rising vertically from the deck of the ship.
This suggests the helicopter — and brings forth
the problems of making the helicopter effi-
cient.

Recently, the writer had the pleasure of meet-
ing in New York the Danish inventor, Ella-
hammer, who made one of the earliest flights
ever made, in 1906, and to see the photograph
of a remarkable aircraft invented by him which
promises to do everything that an helicopter

should do, but without the objectionable heli-
copter features. This would make it possible
for the seaplane to rise vertically from the deck
and alight in the same way on its return. Ex-
periments should be conducted as soon as pos-
sible along this line.

Submarines as Seaplane Carriers

The use of submarines as seaplane carriers is
a possibility. According to reports, Germany
is building submarines especially for this pur-
pose. The progress in submarine construction
has been amazing, and further progress must be
anticipated. The relative dimensions of the
U-7 and the U-53, both built in 1916, show ex-
traordinary developments. The U-l was 139
feet long, displacement, 240 tons; speed (sur-
face), 11 knots; speed (submerged), 9 knots;

One of the kite-balloon mother-ships of the Allies.

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

The kite balloon and balloon ship employed by the Italians
in the Tripolitania campaign.

cruising radius, 700 miles ; torpedo tubes, 1 for-
ward; torpedoes, 3 18-inch; only one periscope,
and no guns on deck. The U-53 was 213 feet
3 inches long; displacement, 800 tons; speed
(surface), 18 knots; speed (submerged), 10
knots; cruising radius, 10,000 miles; torpedo
tubes, 2 forward and two aft; torpedoes, 10;
three periscopes, and two guns on deck.

Some of the latest United States submarines,
now under construction, are 250 feet long, of
1200 tons displacement, with a radius of 8000
miles, and a speed of 20 knots on the surface.
The seaplane carrier Engadine, which sup-
plied the seaplane that gave such great assist-
ance to the British squadron during the Jutland
battle, is of less than 1000 tons displacement.
A submarine of 1000 tons displacement has, of
course, much less room for seaplanes than a ship
of the same size. But even the U-53 could
carry several small, fast seaplanes, such as are
used for bombing raids. Larger submarines
may be built that can carry a number of sea-
planes easily. A fleet of submarine seaplane
carriers would operate very much like the fleets

The aft-deck of a British balloon-ship, showing the cylinders
of gas for inflating the balloon ranged in rows.

of seaplane carriers operated at Salonika, men-
tion of which is made in another chapter.

Kite-Balloon Carriers

The employment of kite balloons for observa-
tion and spotting the fall of shots has become
general. The old-time kites, which were flown
from ships — when weather permitted — have
been entirely replaced by the kite balloon,
which is steadier and easier to operate.

Kite-balloon ships have formed part of the
Allies* squadrons throughout the war, and hun-
dreds of kites have been used by both sides, off
the coasts as observation posts, and for guard-
ing the approaches of ship lanes, harbors, and
naval stations.

The Allies had but few kite balloons at the
beginning of the war. Their value was recog-
nized by the Germans for many years previous

An observation balloon partly inflated on board of a
British balloon ship. The foreground shows the winch used
for winding in the balloon after its work is finished.

A kite balloon being inflated on the balloon-ship, U, M.
Cunning. The white "fence" protects the balloon from the

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Directing the firing of Al-
ac-tion. It Is tethered to the lies' ships that shell the

An observation balloon ascending from the "hangar" in the
balloon-ship's main deck, where the balloon is stowed, off the
coast of Flanders.

to the war, and they had many kite balloons in
service when the war opened. The Allies had
but few kite balloons, and had at first to press
into service spherical balloons, which were,
however, soon replaced by kite balloons.
British and French private ships were likewise
pressed into use as balloon ships, and stationed
outside of harbors, where the observers kept
watch for enemy ships and aircraft and helped
to locate mines and submarines.

In the accompanying illustrations views are
shown of two of the British kite-balloon ships.
One illustrates a ship with a balloon on board,
with a "fence" to protect it from side winds;
another, the balloon being inflated and the
winch used to take the balloon down; a third,
the hydrogen tubes which supply the hydrogen
to inflate the balloon. As shown herewith,
there are two types of balloon ships : ( 1 ) One
on which the kite balloon is inflated on the aft
deck; (2) another where the balloon is kept
and inflated in a hold in the aft deck. The lat-
ter is the better because the balloon can be in-
flated in the hold, where it is covered with can-
vas and kept in readiness, to be sent up at the

ship by cable. The
Beers in the basket report their
observations by telephone and
other ways.

coast fortifications at
Zeebrugge.

opportune moment; whereas, in the former, the
inflating can only be done under normal condi-
tions. On ships which carry both seaplanes
and a balloon, the latter is kept in the hold of
the aft deck. Kite balloons were first placed
on board of United States ships the Nevada
and the Oklahoma in 1916. Both these
ships are of 27,500 tons displacement, twin
screw, 26,500 horse-power, equipped with 31
guns. They took on board Goodyear type kite
balloons, 80 feet long, 25,000 cubic feet ca-

AIRCRAFT MOTHER SHIPS

37

How British and French private boats were used as balloon ships and stationed outside of harbors, where the observers kept
watch for enemy ships and aircraft and helped in locating mines and submarines. This shows one of the small spherical balloons
used in the beginning of the war.

parity. These are inflated with hydrogen
carried in cylinders containing 200 cubic feet
each, hundreds of which are carried on hoard of
the ships.

There is a disadvantage in carrying balloons
on board a battleship, because the ship must

slow down to send up the balloon. Since Euro-
pean navies do not have balloons on battleships
it has not yet been determined whether this dis-
advantage is compensated by the promptness
of service made possible by having the balloon
on board.

ltail and truck of the Catupault on the U.S.S. North Carolina for launching seapli

The white arrow shows exactly what the periscope of a submarine looks like to n
also shows the submarine mothcrship, the U- S. S. Columbia, second class cruise:

aviator about 3500 feet up. This photograph
T3JU tons displacement, 1H^09 horse-power.

CHAPTER VI
SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

The submarine menace can be checked by
present-day aircraft.

In any discussion of what can be done against
the submarine, it must first be stated whether
we mean the protection of ships at sea or on
coastwise trips. Nothing could protect the sea
lanes so well as large dirigibles, capable, as the
Zeppelins are, of cruising for 3000 miles with-
out stopping.

Unfortunately, no country outside of Ger-
many has large dirigibles for use for this pur-
pose. If we had such airships, they could be
used to patrol the ship lanes daily. No sub-
marine would be safe, no matter where at sea,
if large dirigibles were thus patroling, because
large dirigibles carry guns of sufficient caliber
to sink a submarine with a single shot. Like-
wise, the observers from a dirigible, as in the
case of an observer from an aeroplane, can see

a submarine miles away, when a man from- a
ship cannot detect it, and as the airship travels
many times faster than the submarine and the
submarine could not easily detect the approach
of the airship, the submarine would stand no
chance.

Unfortunately, the Allies are not now in a
position to patrol these sea lanes with a large
number of airships, although there is a possi-
bility that Great Britain will put some into serv-
ice within a few months.

The submarine menace can be checked by
present-day aircraft — seaplanes, small diri-
gibles, and kite balloons. We are now building
large seaplanes which are capable of carrying
fuel for continuous flights of over fifteen hours
and capable of gaining a speed of over seventy-
five miles an hour. American manufacturers
have supplied quite a number of large seaplanes

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

of this type to England, and, as Mr. C. G.
Grayj the editor of the "London Aeroplane,"
has pointed out, "If America is seriously per-
turbed about the facts of American shipping
and American citizens traveling by sea, it
should not be a difficult matter for America to
rig up in a very short space of time quite a
fleet of aeroplane carriers suitable for handling
these big seaplanes."

According to the figures of the French
Minister of Marine the submarines sank ships
aggregating 2,085,380 tons in 1916, and
8,000,000 tons in the first four months of 1917.
This is far more tonnage than the United States
has, and as tonnage can be produced but
slowly, every means which affords protection to
our ships must be employed.

Historic

Some months before the beginning of the
Great War, the British submarine A-7 was
lost near Plymouth, and an aeroplane was em-
ployed, among other means, to find it. The
aeroplane proved to be the most efficient means
for finding the submarine; it found it with such
promptness as to give an idea of the possibili-
ties of employing aeroplanes for submarine
hunting. But, at the time, the efficiency of the
submarine itself as a naval weapon was doubted
by many naval men, who could not believe that
a submarine could be constructed that would

On sighting the submarine under water the aviator s
the cruisers and trawlers by wireless. If the submarine comes
to the surface, and there Is danger of its escaping before tt
■an be netted, the aviator bombs It.

have a cruising range of over a thousand miles.
Even the most far-seeing naval experts coidd
hardly appreciate the advent of a submarine
like the U-53, which would have a cruising
radius of 10,000 miles. It will be remem-
bered that Sir Percy Scott, the British naval
authority, created a sensation a few months
prior to the war when he stated that submarines
and aircraft would revolutionize naval war-
fare, and urged that Great Britain concentrate
its efforts on building fleets of submarines and
aircraft. He also pointed out that the air-
craft would be the most powerful weapon to
be used against submarines. Admiral Sir
Percy Scott's prophecy was very generally
laughed at in naval circles the world over.

The Great 'War was only a few months old
when the revolutionary value of both sub-
marines and aircraft became evident. But the
submarines and aircraft available were not suf-
ficient in number to permit any of the nations
to employ them for offensive purposes. They
were all used for defensive purposes within a
small radius of their respective bases. As the
number of both submarines and aircraft in-
creased, their operations extended more and
more, and as the submarine menace grew, the
nations had to meet it, and found that the air-
craft was the best weapon for hunting sub-
marines. To best understand the tremendous
task which the British Navy had to perform
and how important the protection afforded by
aircraft became, one must read the report which
Sir Edward Carson, the First Lord of the Ad-

In reproducing this photograph tin- "Illuslnited London New
lent view of the car of one of tin- small naval dirigibles used fur
pilot ciin In- seen ni-iir the front of the machine, witli tin- ohscrv
pellor can l>e faintly discerned .just above tlie riplit wheel. Th
scouting airships wen- first introduced by our own Navy, and hav
when under water in clear, c . "

rship, on sighting u submarine, at n

." says: "Tliis photograph, frnm a Frencli source, gives an excel-
coiiting and observation, an it appears in flight. The head of the
■r sitting behind him to the left. The whirring blades of the pro-

■ ear is n slight modi Meat ion of that of nn oeroplane. The little

■ been found very useful in tracking submarines, which can be seen
ttnek a submarine by dropping bombs upon it. Provided as it is

atcs witli the patrol-boats." The Allies havr

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

miralty, made to the British Government on
February 21, 1917. He reported that since
the commencement of the war the British Navy
(with the cooperation of its most efficient aerial
coast patrol) had examined 25,874 ships. Dur-
ing the first eighteen days of February, 6076
ships arrived in ports of the United Kingdom,
and 5873 ships had cleared from United King-
dom ports. Practically every ship that arrived
and every ship that cleared was inspected as it
neared the ports, and convoyed by dirigibles or
seaplanes. Sir Edward Carson pointed out
that from the beginning of the war up to
October 30, 1916, the British Navy transported
across the seas 8,000,000 troops; 9,420,000 tons
of explosives and material, 47,504,000 gallons
of gasoline, over a million of sick and wounded,
and over a million mules and horses, etc.

Little had been done by the navies of the
world to develop naval aeronautics prior to the
war. The German Navy had concentrated on
developing its naval Zeppelins, and both the
German and the British navies only really be-
gan to give serious consideration to naval
aeronautics in 1913. When the war started,
the British Navy had less than 100 seaplanes,
and but very few dirigibles available for serv-
ice. France had been concentrating her efforts
in developing the army branch of the air serv-
ice, but had done very little in naval aero-
nautics, outside of the few experiments made
at San Raphael. That was also true of Italy.
In fact, when the war started, naval aero-
nautics was in a period of experimentation.
Until then most navy people, trained to face
the crushing force of the elements, looked at
the frail aeroplane askance and asked for the
supreme test, seaworthiness, before admitting
it as a naval auxiliary. Without seaworthiness
they could not see any use for the aeroplane,
and accordingly postponed the organization of
naval aeronautics.

When it became necessary to build up a sys-
tem of protection against submarines, the war-
ring nations pressed into service thousands of
small vessels, destroyers, trawlers, and sub-
marine chasers, and as fast as they could ob-
tain them they put into service seaplanes and
dirigibles, to cooperate with the ships in locat-

ing and capturing and destroying hostile sub-
marines ; and convoying ships, protecting them
from submarine attacks.

The fame of the aircraft which convoyed
every troop- and supply-ship which crossed the
Channel from the beginning of the Great War
and of those that convoyed ships on coast-wise
trips, is world-wide.

The first attack on a submarine base was re-
ported on March 24, 1915. British naval avia-
tors bombed Cockeriel's Ship Yard and
wharves at Hoboken near Antwerp, destroy-
ing two submarines. The British Admiralty
on that occasion issued the following state-
ment:

The following has been received from Wing Com-
mander Longmore: "I have to report that a suc-
cessful air attack was carried out this morning by five
machines of the Dunkirk Squadron on the German
submarines being constructed at Hoboken, near Ant-
werp-

"Two of the pilots had to return, owing to thick
weather, but Squadron Commander Iver T. Courtney,
and Flight Lieut. H. Rosher, reached their objective

Photograph of a bomb dropped by an Allies' dirigible o
submerging German submarine.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

w^m

^vHfeft**

Watching for submarines: A kite bnlloon anchored to a shi|i watchinjr for submarines on the North Sea. The observer In the
basket can spot his quarry many miles away and summon seaplanes, destroyers, and trawlers by wireless to deal with the
U-Boats.

and after planing down to 1,000 feet, dropped four
bombs each on the submarine!;.

"It is believed that considerable damage lias been
done to both the works and two submarines. The
works were observed to be on fire. In all, five sub-
marines were observed on the slip.

"Flight Lieut. B. Crossley-Mcates was obliged by
engine trouble to descend in Holland. Owing to the
mist, the two pilots experienced considerable diffi-
culty in finding their way, and they were subjected to
a heavy gun fire while delivering their attacks."

The first report of an attack on submarines
by an aircraft was issued by the German Ad-
miralty on May i, 1iH5. It stated that on
May 3 a German naval dirigible fought several
British submarines in the North Sea and
dropped bombs on them, sinking one. The
submarines, the report stated, fired on the
dirigible without success.

On May 81. 101.). the German Admiralty
announced the sinking of a Russian submarine

by bombs dropped by German naval aviators
near Gotland.

On July 1, 1915, the following despatch from
Rome told of the sinking of the Austrian sub-
marine U-ll in the Adriatic by a French avia-
tor:

The Minister of Marine states the action took place
on Thursday. The V-lt was lying lazily on the sur-
faee and apparently failed to notice the aviator as
he circled overhead. With a sudden swoop the aero-
plane shot downward to within forty-five feet of the
submarine's deck. Hy this time it was too late for the
under scan craft to submerge. Three bombs were
dropped, all of which struck the submarine near the
turret and exploded.

The submarine sank almost instantly and did not
reappear, although wreckage was afterwards found
about the scene. The I'-IJ was one of the newest
of the Austrian submcrsibks ami displaced about 860
tons. She is supposed to have bad aboard a crew
of twentr-five men.

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

43

A later report stated that this submarine was
destroyed by French Naval Sub-Lieutenant
Rouillet of the French seaplane squadron,
operating in the Adriatic with the Italian naval
forces.

On July 27, 1913, it was reported that a Ger r
man submarine headed for a British transport
laden with troops and ammunition was put to
flight by an Allied aeroplane in the Dar-
danelles. The aviators saw the submarine pre-
paring to launch a torpedo and gave the alarm.
Pending the arrival of the destroyer, the aero-
plane dropped bombs at the submarine. Al-
though none of the bombs took effect, they
forced the submarine to submerge. Soon after
the periscope reappeared on the surface, and
the aviator dropped two more bombs. The
submarine submerged and did not reappear.

On August 19, 1915, the Turkish war office
stated that an Allied submarine had been sunk
in the Dardanelles by a Turkish aeroplane.

In an official note issued on August 26 by
the British press bureau, the following report
of the destruction of a German submarine by a
British aviator was given:

The Secretary of the Admiralty announces that
Squadron Commander Arthur W. Bigsworth, R. N.,

destroyed single-handed, a German submarine this
morning by bombs dropped from an aeroplane. The
submarine was observed to be completely wrecked and
sank off Ostend.

''It is not the practice of the Admiralty to publish
statements regarding the losses of Herman submarines,
important as they have been, in cases where the enemy
had not other sources of information as to the time
and place at which these losses have occurred.

"In the case referred to above, however, the bril-
liant feat of Squadron Commander Bigsworth was
performed in the immediate neighborhood of the coast
in occupation of the enemy, and the position of the
sunken submarine has been located by a German de?
stroyer."

On November 28, 1915, a brief official re-
port stated that a French aviator had de-
stroyed a German submarine off the Belgian
coast by dropping bombs on it. This report
was confirmed through the awarding of the
Victoria Cross to Lieutenant Viney and the
recommendation for the Legion of Honor of
Lieutenant de Sincay. The official mention of
the conferring of the honors reads as follows:

For his services on November 28, 1915, when ac-
companied by le lieutenant en second de Sincay as ob-
server, he destroyed a German submarine off the Bel-
gian coast by bombs dropped from an aeroplane. Le

; of the kite Imlloons tmchored tiff the coasts to

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Lieutenant en second Colley Saint-Paul Comte de Sin-
cay, attached to No. 1 Wing, R, N. A. S., to be an
Honorary Companion of the Distinguished Service
Order — for his services in connection with the destruc-
tion of a German submarine by bombs dropped from
an aeroplane on November 28, 1915.

The story of the sinking of the German sub-
marine is told by Lieutenants Viney and de
Sincay on their return to Paris from Dunkirk
a few days later as follows :

It was noon on Sundny. We had left half an hour
before on a French biplane, to look for submarines,
which were reported near by. We rose 10,000 feet,
and had been cruising about for some time, when we
saw two submarines five miles off shore, west of Nieu-
port.

It was an ideal spot for our purpose. The sea was
shallow, giving the submarines little chance of escape.
By plunging in wide spirals, wc descended on one of
the boats which, being above a sand bank, could not
dive. She made desperate efforts to get away, steer-
ing in wild zigzags.

We realized we could not get her, and so turned
our attention to the other boat. Apparently it was
more difficult to handle her, for despite all endeavors,
she failed to get out of the circle we traced as we
pounded down on her.

We came down to about 300 feet above the sea.
When we were certain of not missing, we let go the
first bomb, and had the satisfaction of seeing we had
made a hit. Even with the naked eye we could ob-
serve that serious damage had been inflicted on the
deck of the boat.

We circled around twice more over the doomed sub-
marine. A second bomb did the rest of the work.
She broke in half and sank.

We did not wait to see more. Moments were pre-

cious. We had to get back to Dunkirk as quickly as
possible, for the submarines were sure to have given
warning and we were liable to find our retreat cut off
by the enemy's aeroplanes if wc lingered.

Numerous other reports of attacks on sub-
marines and sinking of submarines were made
public in 1916, mostly successes of the Allied
aviators. A detailed report of how an Aus-
trian seaplane sank the French submarine
Foucault and two Austrian aeroplanes rescued
the twenty-nine officers and men of the sub-
marine was told in the "Tageblatt." The
Austrian Admiralty's statement read as fol-
lows:

An Austro-Hungarian naval aeroplane in the South-
ern Adriatic sank, by means of bombs, the French
submarine Foucault. The aeroplane's pilot was Lieu-
tenant Celezeny and the observer was Lieutenant von
Klimburg. The entire crew of the submarine, com-
prising two officers and twenty-seven men, many of
whom were in a drowning condition, were rescued and
made prisoners by the naval aeroplane mentioned and
by another piloted by Lieutenant Komjovee, with
Cadet Sevcra as observer.

Half an hour later the imprisoned crew was taken
over by a torpedo boat, while the two officers were
transported to land on the naval aeroplanes.

The craft sunk was the submarine Foucault, built
in 1912 at Cherbourg. She was 167 feet long, 16.3
beam, with a speed of 12.5 knots above water and 8
knots submerged. She was equipped with 6 torpedo
tubes.

In the story of the rescue of the twenty-nine
men, the officers and crew of the Foucault, the
"Tageblatt" stated that the sea was rough at

A French seaplane starting on a submarine patrol at Dunkirk.

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

45

the time and there was the danger that the
Austrian aeronauts would be captured by hos-
tile warships, as well as that the aeroplanes,
overloaded by taking on board so many men,
might collapse. Nevertheless, the Austrian
aviators told the men from the French sub-
marines to swim to the seaplanes and take hold
of them. The commander and second officer
of the submarines were allowed to climb into
the pilots' seats. The aviators signaled for
help, and half an hour later a torpedo boat ar-
rived and took on board the men from the sub-
marine.

Many other submarines were also captured
or destroyed through the cooperation of air-
craft. The policy has been to capture the sub-
marines whenever possible. The report of one
of the latest cases where two submarines were
enmeshed as the result of the cooperation be-
tween aircraft and trawlers was reported by
Captain E. L. Smith of the American steamer
Alaskan, which arrived at Newport on March
19, 1917, from La Pallice, France. The
U-boats were detected beneath the surface by
a patrol seaplane. The aviator signaled for
trawlers and circled about directing the placing
of nets. Soon these were drawn completely
about the unsuspecting submersibles, which
were brought to the surface. They were lying
side by side in the harbor of La Pallice when
the Alaskan sailed.

There are also many instances where sub-
marines about to attack ships were chased by
aircraft.

How a French aeroplane drove off a U-boat
shelling a British freighter that was in flames
on March 19, 1917, is told by Captain D. S.
Ramsdale, commander of the Eastgate, which
arrived from La Pallice, as follows:

We left New York on December 20 bound for La
Pallice, France, with a general cargo, principally of
twine and gasolene in barrels, consigned to the French
Government. On December 26, when well off the New-
foundland Banks, a fire was discovered in the coal in
the 'thartship coal bunker. It quickly spread and
fed on the twine stored in hold No. 2, located for-
ward.

Things began to look rather bad, as the seas were
rolling high. We tried turning the hose on the flames,
but without success. I then ordered the hatches bat-

tened down and ran a steam pipe forward, hoping to
smother the flames.

We were in a tight place, as our gasolene was stored
in hold No. 1, and if the flames ever succeeded in
reaching the barrels — well, it was n't a thought to
improve any one's sleep.

After three days and nights of fighting the fire with
steam, our coal supply ran low, since it was impossible
to reach the coal without getting in the 'thartship hold
and shoveling the coal down.

It was impossible to remain in the 'tharthold more
than three or four minutes at a time, but we had to
have that coal. Accordingly, every member of the
crew took turns entering our "little furnace" and
shoveling as long as we could before the smoke be-
came overpowering. Oh yes; I shoveled too.

On January 3 we were advised by naval authorities
by signals to put into a certain bay, as there was
danger ahead, but I signaled back that my vessel
was afire and that I intended to continue on to La-
Pallice.

We were well in sight of land the following day
when a shot whistled across our bows. I had no gun
or wireless to call for assistance, and as the submar-
ine was not in sight, decided to make a run for it.

A few minutes later the submarine appeared about
two miles off our starboard quarter and bore down
on us at great speed. Ten shots struck the East-
gate.

One shot tore through the skylight above the en-
gine room and burst just above the boilers. The
shrapnel caught our third engineer and rendered him
unconscious. Another shell found our starboard life-
boat and blew it to atoms.

Meanwhile I had ordered the crew to take to the
port lifeboat. Just as we were rowing away I heard
the roar of an aeroplane, and looking up saw a fast
French battleplane approaching.

The aeroplane dropped down to within 500 feet
above the undersea craft. At the same time two de-
stroyers stimmonded by the aviator came up from op-
posite directions at top speed. The submarine had
only one avenue of escape from the two destroyers
and the aeroplane. She submerged with all possible
speed.

A few minutes later we rowed back to the East gate
and headed for La Pallice. We arived that night and
quenched the flames by flooding the holds.

Methods of and Weapons for Aerial Attack

on Submarines

Attack by Seaplanes and Dirigibles

In a recent report, Sir Edward Carson, the
First Lord of the Admiralty, gave instances of
the sinking of submarines with bombs dropped

46

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

by the small coast patrol dirigibles and sea-
planes. The method employed by both the
dirigibles and the seaplanes is similar. Hun-
dreds of these aircraft are employed to co-
operate with destroyers, trawlers, and sub-
marine chasers in capturing or destroying hos-
tile submarines and searching coasts for sub-
marine bases. The usual evidence of the sub-
marine's presence is the wake of the periscope.
This wake cannot easily be seen from ships, but
can always be clearly seen from aeroplanes.
For one thing, the aviator is not troubled by the
refraction of the rays of light, which interfere
with the vision of the person on a ship. For

another thing, the aviator, flying at a height of
from 1000 to 5000 feet, has a range of vision of
many miles, and the whitish wake of the peri-
scope is clearly visible against the dark surface
of the waters, even in cases where the sea is
fairly rough and white caps are showing.

In clear weather an aviator from a height of
between 1000 and 3000 feet can also see a sub-
marine under water. In clear weather and
clear water, he can see the submarine even
when it is down to a depth of 100 feet. In less
clear water, the submarine can be seen at
a depth of 20 to 30 feet.

The present-day submarines are so large that

When a submarine commander observes an enemy vessel he submerges his boat whilst slitl at a distance from his target, and then
approaches to a position within firing-range of, say 2000 yards (Fig. 5). If the sea lie rough, anil it is consequently difficult to
observe small objects on its surface, he keeps the enemy under continual observation by means of his periscope, a vertical tube
projecting above the surface of the water fitted with an arrangement of lenses whose design enables them to project the picture
within the field of their ohject-glass on to a suitable lens under observation inside the vessel. If, however, it is inadvisable to show
even a periscope, the object is approached in a scries of "porpoise dives," observations being taken when the periscope is above the
Surface (Fig. 5). — (Drawn by W. B. Robinson, for the "Illustrated London News."]

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

47

they not only can be detected through the con-
trast which they make against their surround-
ings in the water, but also through the foamy
wake at the stern, which is clearly visible by
contrast.

The U-53 is 213 feet, 3 inches long, and later
ones are even larger. Such submarines pre-
sent a very large target, and whereas their
speed submerged is between 10 and 15 knots
at most, the seaplanes, which go at a speed of
up to 90 miles an hour, and even the small
dirigibles, with a speed of only about 35 miles
an hour, have an advantage over the sub-
marines — and the latter steer clear of places
where it is known that aircraft are employed
for submarine hunting. Seaplanes and coast
patrol dirigibles are employed in daily patrols
to search for submarine bases and for sub-
marines that may be lying in wait for ships.
If a submarine is seen under water, the aircraft,
whether seaplane or dirigible, being equipped
with wireless and bombs, first send a wireless
summoning destroyers, trawlers, and submarine
chasers. Whenever possible an opportun-
ity is given to the trawlers or the ships which
operate the nets to come up to the submarine
and enmesh it in the huge net. That saves the
submarine, and the crew is made prisoners.
If, however, the submarine comes to the sur-
face and there is a possibility of its escaping,
the aircraft makes its attack by dropping the
bombs. While it is difficult for the submarine
to see the aircraft, and it takes several minutes
to submerge, it has also been difficult in the
past for untrained aviators who had to be
pressed into this service to hit the submarines.
While the above reports show that many sub-
marines were destroyed, it is also known that
many more escaped, because the pilots dropped
several bombs without hitting them.

But now aircraft guns of up to 3-inch cali-
ber are being turned out, which will make it
possible for the pilots to shoot at the sub-
marines, cutting down the difficulty of hit-
ting to about one quarter, because it is easier
to sight the target with a gun, and the average
man finds it natural to shoot a gun, and
more difficult to drop a bomb with preci-
sion.

The best success is obtained, of course,
through bombing a submarine from a height of
from 300 to 500 feet. Then the target is not
missed so easily. The submarine, unless it
happens to be on the surface, with its guns
ready to fire, stands very little chance of fight-
ing back, because to do so it must come en-
tirelv on the surface, and the hatches where
the anti-aircraft guns are must be opened, the
gun must be aimed, etc. That requires time,
and gives an opportunity to the aviator to drop
bombs and anything else he may have available
on the submarine and gunner. If a submarine
finds itself in danger and submerges, it leaves
an oily patch, which is clearly visible from the
air, although far less visible from a ship. As
the submarine can only make a speed of be-
tween 10 and 15 knots, and usually comes up
to the surface at intervals of between 50 to 100
miles, it is comparatively easy to keep a watch
on tKat particular submarine — although, of
course, not so easy to capture it or destroy it.
But as the aircraft and the trawlers and sub-
marine chasers are watching for it, warning is
given and the submarine cannot make a sur-
prise attack upon ships.

The "deep-sea vision" afforded by the sea-
plane is an even more valuable asset for fight-
ing a submarine than is its superior speed.
Deep sea vision enables the seaplane to detect
a submerged submarine to a depth of about 100
feet in very transparent waters such as are
found in the Mediterranean or in the Caribbean
Sea; in the northern Atlantic the visible depth
is more limited. It generally varies according
to the color of the sea bottom and of the
sky.

• The possibility of detecting submarines by
means of a seaplane reconnaissance has obvi-
ously an immense importance for the safety of
a fleet, for it eliminates to a great extent the
deadliest danger ships of the line have to cope
with in time of war. Whereas the submarine
cannot launch a torpedo without getting its
bearings, i.e., without showing its periscope
above the water, it is an easv matter for a sea-
plane to follow the course of a submerged sub-
marine and attack it with bombs at the very
moment the periscope pops out of the sea.

48

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Painting Submarines to Make Them Less

Visible

Exhaustive experiments have been made in
painting submarines so as to make them less
visible when they are under water. But while
they can be made less visible through painting
them in colors that blend well with the water
and sea bottom, it is hardly possible to so paint
the large fleet submarines and the ocean-going
super-submarines, which are used for long
cruises, in such a way that they w r ill blend with
the water and conditions existing in different
places in which they are cruising. The smaller
coastal type submarine, which is used entirely
for coast defense, and does not have to go on
long distance cruises, can be painted more ef-
fectively to blend with the color of the water in
which it operates. But nothing can be done to
eliminate the foamy wake of the periscope, and
if the periscope were eliminated entirely, then
the submarine would have to come close to the
surface and it would make a better target for
the aeroplane.

To Distinguish Hostile Submarines from

Our Own

There are many submarines still operating,
because the aviators could not distinguish the
hostile submarines from their own, and could
not afford to take any chances in destroying
them. Marking submarines does not afford a
solution, because the enemy can adopt the
markings and carry on its work of destruction
under disguise.

Considering that when a periscope shows the
pilot has to decide how to act, and that unless
the aircraft is flying low, it is hard to distinguish
the features of the submarine from a height, one
can well understand why even naval men in
different countries have found it hard to tell
whether a given submarine was one of their own
or the enemy's. In this respect, it was found
that naval men who acted as observers were no
better in detecting submarines than the aviators
who had had practically no experience in naval
work. The aviator was used to judging things
from the air, whereas the naval man, with little
experience in flying, found it hard to define the

things he saw. Of course, this does not last
long; and after a score or so of flights, the naval
observer becomes accustomed to flying, just as
the aviator becomes accustomed to distinguish-
ing naval craft.

The only way to prevent mistakes and not to
let hostile submarines get away is for the com-
manders to give the aerial submarine hunters in-
formation regarding the movements of friendly
submarines operating in the locality.

Kite Balloons as Lookouts for Submarines

Hundreds of kite balloons have been used as
lookouts for submarines in the Great War.
These balloons are sent up from barges or kite-
balloon ships, and are sent up to a height of
from 1000 to 2000 feet, where they stay
throughout the day, the observers scanning the
surface of the water, looking out for subma-
rines. When they see a submarine or a doubt-
ful ship, they summon the seaplanes, destroyers,
and submarine chasers by wireless. The em-
ployment of kite balloons as lookouts releases
dirigibles and ships from continuous patrol of
different localities which are equally well pro-
tected through the work of the observers in the
kite balloons.

The

Aerial Submarine Hunt in
American History

The first aerial submarine hunt in American
history took place during March, 1917. On
Monday, March 26, the keeper of the light-
house at Quogue, Long Island, New York, re-
ported to Commissioner Putnam, of the Bu-
reau of Lighthouses, Department of Com-
merce, Washington, D. C, that there was evi-
dence that two U-boats were "lying in toward
the Sound."

The supposed U-boats had been sighted at
the Montauk Point entrance of the Sound at
about six o'clock that afternoon, headed into
Long Island Sound.

Remembering the exploits of the U-58,
which had done everything that had theretofore
been pronounced as impossible for a submarine
to do, including crossing the Atlantic and sink-
ing half dozen ships in succession, off the

SUBMARINE HUNTING BY AIRCRAFT

49

American coasts, then disappearing from sight,
the authorities, naval and aeronautic, had, to
take steps to ascertain the truth of the report.
While the tendency of some people in such a
case was to laugh incredulously, the authorities
realized that unless something was done imme-
diately there might be a repetition of the work
of the U-53. But, unfortunately, the navy
had not yet established an aeronautic base in
the East, and the score of seaplanes owned by
members of the Aerial Coast Patrol and mem-
bers of the Aero Club of America were in
Florida, where the members of the Aerial Coast
Patrol were training. The Naval Militia Avia-
tion Section was not in a position to assist be-
cause the two seaplanes presented to it by
patriotic people were worn out by the training
of last summer and the Navy Department had
not yet supplied the Militia with machines.
The nearest seaplanes available were at Pensa-
cola, Florida.

So the distinction of doing the first aerial
coast patrolling over our coast line, to hunt for
submarines, went to the civilian aviators who
later became part of the Aerial Reserve
Squadron at Governor's Island, and to the
civilian instructors and aerial reservists con-
nected with the Mineola (L. I.) Army Avia-
tion School.

The following morning four fliers rose from
the Mineola field in a forty-mile an hour
gale and rain and a bad fog. They were de-
tailed to patrol the Long Island coast from
Oyster Bay to Montauk Point, while Gov-
ernor's Island aviators watched over the shore
from the island to Oyster Bay. The Gov-
ernor's Island aviators were. First-Lieut. H.
H. Salmon (Aerial Reserve Corps), with Ed-
win M. Post, Jr., as observer, and First-Lieut.
Wm. P. Willetts (A. R. C), with observer.
The Mineola aviators were Capt. A. W. Briggs
(British Royal Flying Corps), pilot; Lieut.
H. F. Wehrle, formerly of the West Virginia
National Guard, now of the Aerial Reserve
Corps, as observer; Leonard W. Bcnney, in-
structor; Alan S. Adams, observer; Bertrand
B. Acosta, instructor; Douglas E. Manning,
observer; A. Livingston Allen, instructor;
Harmon C. Norton, observer. Two of the

men, Acosta and Briggs, were out for three
days. They did not return to their headquar-
ters, merely landing when they were forced to.

Considering that there was a gale blowing
and the weather was foggy, and it was their
first experience, it was quite a difficult task.
But it was well done by both groups. The
Mineola aviators had the hardest task. Acosta
and Allen got to Port Jefferson in the first
evening, Bonney to Southold, and Captain
Briggs and Lieutenant Wehrle to Springs, on
Gardiner's Bay, after having searched the bays
and inlets around Big Gull Island, Little Gull
Island, Gardiner's Island, and Gardiner's Bay.
The total distance covered by Captain Briggs
and Lieutenant Wehrle in a driving rain-storm,
was 124 miles.

The machines went out between five and
eleven miles at sea, the inlets and bavs were
searched, vessels plotted, compass directions
and time when located were given. But the
submarines were not found.

The machines were not equipped with wire-
less, and there was not a wireless receiving sta-
tion in operation to receive their message if one
had been sent. But there was a cruiser and
other vessels which could have been summoned
if the submarines had been found.

The submarine hunt lasted three days, after
which the Navy Department issued the follow-
ing statement:

"The Navy Department has chased down the
rumor that two strange submarines were
sighted off Montauk Point at 6 o'clock on the
evening of March 26, headed into Long Island
Sound.

"These supposed submarines were two patrol
motor boats returning from a trial trip. The
builder has stated that these boats passed Mon-
tauk Point at the time stated and that one was
trailing the other, which was in accordance with
the report of submarines sighted.

"The builder also stated that he has been told
that his boats looked so much like submarines
that there was danger of their being mistaken
for such.

"The Navy Department has expressed its
gratification at the prompt, efficient and timely
assistance of the army in detailing its aero-

50

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

planes for search duty, on which they were con-
stantly engaged for three days.

"This incident emphasizes the need of hy-
droaeroplanes for naval scouting purposes."

French System of Patrol Against U-Boats

The French system of patrol against U-boats,
including the employment of seaplanes from
possibly hundreds of seaplane stations, were de-
scribed briefly on May 26, 1917, in the public
session of the Chamber of Deputies, by Admiral
Lacaze, the Minister of Marine, who gave an
interesting outline of the means of defense
France had adopted against the undersea boats.

"I see no reason why I should not speak of
these methods in public," said Admiral Lacaze.
"It would be childish to think they are unknown
to the enemy. They consist of a system of
patrol boats, of arming merchantmen with guns,
and fitting them with wireless; of seaplanes,
nets, mines, smoke-raising devices, and drag-
nets.

"I sought to get patrol boats built here and
•buy them abroad. I scoured the world over
with missions, covering the ground from Amer-
ica to North Cape, from the Cape of Good
Hope to Japan, but England had been before-
hand. When I entered the Ministry I found
243 patrols. Now we have 552." (A Socialist
voice: "It is formidable.")

"I do not say it is formidable," continued the
Minister, "nor even sufficient, and I have drawn

up a scheme which will increase the figure to
900. I continue to buy in London, the world's
center for shipping. I am obliged to do so
because our shipyards had been almost com-
pletely abandoned ; because, as a result of that
short-war theory which weighed so regrettably
upon all decisions taken at the outset of the
war, the yards had been transformed into war
material factories to meet the pressing need of
the national defense. We have now got back
most of the arsenals and a number of private
yards, together with skilled workmen.

"The guns we mount on the patrol boats have
been referred to disdainfully, but you cannot
put ten-centimeter guns on a small vessel. A
patrol boat on guard, armed with 95-centimeter
guns, met two submarines armed with 105-milli-
meter guns, sank one and put the other to flight.

"We have 1,200 dragnets as well as 170,500
curtain nets and 5,000 twenty-foot float nets,
which indicate the presence of submarines. We
have special bombs for submarines and appa-
ratus to throw them.

"We have organized seaplane posts all
around the coasts, so that the zone of action of
each post joins that of its neighbor on either
side. By October all merchantmen and pa-
trollers will be fitted with wireless and all mer-
chantmen supplied with guns of as heavy cali-
ber as possible, for which measures programs
have been drawn up even beyond what was
thought possible."

Memoranda:

Photograph of a coast patrol dirigible taken from a flying boat of Harold D. Kantner at the Italian Naval Station of Taranto.

In the foreground may be seen the submerged beds of shell fish, the CocchL

CHAPTER VII
LOCATING SUBMERGED MINES WITH AIRCRAFT

One of the most important uses to which air-
craft have been put since the beginning of the
Great War has been the locating of submerged
mines. Hostile submarines and steamers mas-
querading under false colors lay mines when-
ever the opportunity presents itself, and no ship
lane is immune from them; ships are in danger
of being sunk unless lanes are properly patroled
by aircraft, and subsequently, if necessary,
swept by mine sweepers. Aircraft are em-
ployed extensively to direct the planting of
mines and locating mine fields, and mines set
adrift by storms or other causes.

The size of mines is different in different
countries; and they are spherical or cylindrical
in shape. In the United States the average
contact mine is about forty inches in diameter,
and contains about 100 pounds of TNT, gun

cotton, or other explosives. They run from
that size up to seven feet in diameter.

Mines are usually submerged to a depth of
ten feet, and are usually arranged in clusters of
four, the total number of mines in a mine field
being unlimited. Whether in clusters or in
fields, the electric contact mines protecting har-
bors and stations are controlled from a shore
station, each mine being connected to a sub-
merged connecting box, which is connected to
this station by cable, through which the electric
current is flashed to explode the mines. The
officers in charge of the mine field and operat-
ing from the stations on shore have detailed
maps of the mined areas, showing the exact loca-
tion of the mines. The maps are plotted in
squares, and when a hostile ship approaches a
mine field, the observers at this station, who

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

get information either through seeing the ship
through telescopes or from a kite balloon or a
dirigible or a seaplane, follow the ship's move-
ments and notify the officer in charge of the
electric switchboard to fire the mines of a given
square, through which the ship or ships are
passing.

All mines controlled from the shore can be
made contact mines, that is, mines that will ex-
plode when touching a ship or resistant body.
The officers in charge are warned of the pres-
ence of the ship by signal or bell worked elec-
trically by the contact, and if the vessel is hos-
tile, a fact which is determined by the officer,
the mine is fired.

Other contact mines used extensively are only
anchored but not connected to the shore. These
are exploded by electric contact caused by com-
ing in contact with the ship or a resistant body,
or by the extreme tipping of the mine, which
completes an electrical circuit, which explodes
the mine.

The latter mines are the most dangerous, be-
cause they explode on contact, and are a danger
to one's own vessels as well as to the enemy's
vessels. All harbors and channels and im-
portant approaches are protected by mine fields,
the number of fields and location of mines being
known, of course, only to the authorities.

This information cannot be divulged, for ob-
vious reasons, to the commanders of steamers,
transports, and other ships coming into or clear-
ing from ports. These ships must, therefore,
be guided in and out of ports, and through the
clear channels between mine fields, which is
often done by dirigibles.

The anchored mines are apt to be set adrift
by storms, and aircraft are used extensively in
locating them. Nothing else can enable mine
planters to plant or locate mine fields so quickly
as the aerial observer, who from a height of 500
feet or more in a dirigible or observation bal-
loon, can plot the location of the mines in a few
minutes, whereas it would take days by employ-
ing any other method.

The observer from the basket of the kite bal-
loon cooperating with the mine planter or mine
sweeper advises the officer in charge of the loca-
tions of mines, which are clearly visible to him,

Plunting a submarine

but owing to the refraction, cannot be seen
from the ship.

Dirigibles are especially valuable for locating
submerged mines. The first employment of
dirigibles for this work was the result of the
Italian dirigible P-4 finding by accident, in
October, 1914, while on a cruise over the Adri-
atic, a number of Austrian floating mines.
Thereafter, it was found that the small coast
patrol dirigible, which is capable of flying very
low and of almost standing still over a spot, is
the best means of locating submerged mines.
Upon locating them, the observer summons the
mine sweepers, or if it is important that the mine
be destroyed immediately, he destroys it by
firing at it or by trolling a weight, attached to a
wire, against it under the water. Seaplanes are
also used for locating submerged mines, but less
satisfactorily, owing to the fact that they can-
not travel slowly or stand over a given spot.
The same purpose, but less efficiently, is ac-
complished by the seaplane circling over a given
spot until it has detected the mines that may be
submerged in that spot.

Aircraft can also be used for experiments in
painting mines in different colors, which makes
them less visible from the air. The color must,
of course, change with the color of the back-
ground where the mine is located. In clear
water and when the sun strikes in a way to
create a shadow of the mine, this ruse is of little
avail, but in other conditions the locating of
mines is made very difficult by painting them.

CHAPTER VIII
NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

War with Germany brings the possibility of fall of our own shots, and the fall of the enemy's

aerial raids on American cities by German air-
craft, which may rise from ships at sea or from
temporary bases. Such a possibility was dis-
cussed and admitted in Congress in February,
1917, and as a result, the number of anti-air-
craft guns for the defense of naval stations was
doubled. Since then reports have appeared
that Germany is building ten large submarines
for the special purpose of carrying seaplanes
for raiding purposes. As Mr. Alan R. Haw-
ley, the president of the Aero Club of America,
has pointed out, under the present conditions,
until our anti-aircraft defenses are developed
and anti-aircraft gunners have experience, the
worst that could happen to enemy aviators who
found it necessary to land after dropping bombs
on American cities is that they would be made
prisoners.

Much of the work of operating the anti-air-
craft defenses will have to be carried on by the
Naval Reserve Flying Forces, how much will
be shown by the following definition of what
the naval aircraft defenses comprise.

Naval anti-aircraft defenses are divided into
three classes, as follows:

(1) The Flying Defenses, consisting of
fighting aircraft, including fast-armed, fight-
ing seaplanes and armed dirigibles, which on
receipt of wireless messages from ships at sea,
or through other means, that aircraft are on
their way to attack, fly out to sea and endeavor
to shoot down the hostile aircraft or force them
to retreat.

The purpose of anti-aircraft defenses is to
prevent the enemy's aircraft from reaching our
shores and inflicting damage. The real victory
does not consist in repulsing the enemy or even
in destroying them after they have reached our
shores, because if they succeed in reaching our
shores we are forced to fire in the sky and bear
the responsibility of the damage done by the

bomb-laden aircraft, which, if hit, may do ex-
tensive damage.

(2) The Floating Defenses, consisting of
anti-aircraft guns mounted on different types
of ships, stationed out at sea as far as possible
from the shore, so that in case the aircraft is
not hit, wireless messages can be sent to other
anti-aircraft ships to be on the watch-out, and
to summon aircraft to fight them. Closer to
the shore fast motor boats with anti-aircraft
guns of smaller caliber can be of great value.

{3) Shore Anti-Aircraft Gun Defenses,
consisting of anti-aircraft guns, searchlights,
"listening towers," equipped with huge micro-
phones to magnify the sound of the motors of
the approaching aircraft, and range-finders and
other instruments for gaging distances.

The 3-inch anti-aircraft gun mounted on the U. S. S. Penn-
tylvaiiia.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Naval Anti-Aircraft Guns

The Sixty-fourth Congress at its second ses-
sion, which ended March 4, 1917. allowed
$3,800,000 for anti-aircraft guns for the de-
fense of naval stations, to be available until
1920. The year before, provision was made
for 134 anti-aircraft guns to mount on ships.

These guns, which are illustrated herewith,

are 3-inch, 50-caliber guns, firing a 13-pound
shell or shrapnel. The movement is so ar-
ranged that the gun can fire from 10-inch de-
pression to 90-inch elevation, and at any angle
of train. The gun is semi-automatic, allowing
a rate of fire of more than 20 shots a minute
under favorable circumstances.

These guns have been mounted in many
United States ships, including the U. S. S.

The anti-aircraft gun on board of a British ship anil the bluejacket who operated it when it brought down
the Zeppelin "I. i'O" near Salon ica. This official photograph shows the telescopic sighting-apparatus of the
gun and part of its range-finding mechanism, the laying wheel and the firing key and pistol-grip, which are
held by the gun-layer's right hand. See opposite page for photo of the gun and the control officer.

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

Pennsylvania, the flagship of the Atlantic fleet,
a photograph of which is shown herewith, and
ships of the Texas class, as well as destroyers of
the Davis class.

At the beginning of the war, the German
Navy was using 4.1-inch guns manufactured by
the Krupps, each of 45-caliber, firing projec-
tiles weighing 34 pounds, with a muzzle velocity
of 2630 feet to a height of 12,000 feet. The
rate of fire was 15 shots per minute. Since the
beginning of the war reliable reports state that
other guns have been put in use which are ca-
pable of firing as high as 28,000 feet, although
the practical limit of vision may be placed at
between 10,000 and 12,000 feet.

F. W. Lancaster, the British aeronautic au-
thority, states that :

"Anti-aircraft firing is very inaccurate, hence
numbers are employed to compensate.

"The German guns are: 71 mm., firing 20 to
25 shots per minute, shell weighing 11 pounds,
vertical range 19,000 feet; speed of motor car
60 km. per hour, climbs grade of 1 on 5, with
12mm. armor; submarine anti-aircraft gun, 8.5-
inch caliber, 20 to 25 shots per minute, muzzle
velocity 2500 feet per second, weight of pro-
jectiles, 20 pounds; Krupp, 6-inch, firing 85-
pound projectile discharging smoke trail, is
mainly used by coast defenses and by the navy.

"The Ehrhardt factory at Dusseldorf makes
various anti-aircraft guns, of 2-inch to 6-inch
caliber.

"The most remarkable of these is of 2.6-inch
caliber, weight of projectile 9 pounds, elevation
75 inches, muzzle velocity 2000 feet per second,
vertical range 17,500 feet. Three classes of
projectiles — shrapnel, smoke shrapnel, and
'balloon grenade' are used. This gun is
mounted in an armored car, weighing complete
about seven tons.

"The Skoda works, Pilzen, Austria, makes
a 1.5-inch gun with a muzzle velocity of 3000
feet per second, weighing complete about 1350
pounds. It can be carried on any high-
powered motor car."

The French naval aircraft gun, illustrated
herewith, shows that the French guns are very
similar to the 8-inch anti-aircraft guns.

Some British and German submarines have

been equipped with disappearing guns, which
fit into special hatches. As soon as the sub-
marine has reached the surface, the gun hatch
opens and automatically places the gun in fir-
ing position. Wliile it is true the submarine
faces danger in fighting a seaplane than is the
case vice versa, there have occurred in the Great
War several encounters of this kind, and on
April 30, 1916, a German submarine shot down
a British seaplane.

The anti-aircraft guns mounted on British
and French war ships have been responsible for
bringing down a number of Zeppelins, and a
large number of aeroplanes. On May 5, 1916,
two Zeppelins were brought down, one by a

One of the 3-inch anti-aircraft
guns of the U. S. Navy.

German nioturboats equipped with unti-aircraft guns on the Vistula pursuing a Russian seaplane. From a

drawing by C. Barber, Copyright lllustrirte Zeitung.
Hundreds of such motorboats equipped with anti-aircraft guns nre needed to organize the anti-aircraft de-
fenses of the United States.

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

57

Photo of a German aeroplane which attempted to drop bombs on the resi-
dence in Lb Panne occupied by King Albert I and the Queen of the Belgians,
and was brought down by a Belgian aviator and fell into the sea.

British light cruiser off the coast of Schleswig,
and another at Salonika, shot down by the anti-
aircraft guns mounted on the French battle-
ship Patrie.

There is also shown herewith an illustration
taken from the "Illustrirte Zeitung," showing
motor boats on the Vistula pursuing a Russian
seaplane, shooting at it with small caliber anti-
aircraft guns.

Jurisdiction Over Naval Anti-Aircraft
Defenses

While the introduction of aircraft in military
operations has practically removed the lines of
demarcation, and we find an overlapping co-
operation between the air services of armies
and navies, it is best, for our purpose, to adopt
the old rule that a navy's duties begin outside
of the three-mile limit, but it must protect and
defend the navy yards, naval stations, and
magazines.

As Senator Swanson stated on the floor of
the United States Senate on March 1, 1917,

"The defense of New York, the
defense of other cities, and all in-
side of the three-mile limit, is left
to the army, except the navy
yards and magazines."

When the appropriation for
224 3-inch anti-aircraft guns for
the defense of naval stations came
before the House of Representa-
tives on February 6, 1917, and a
point of order was made by Con-
gressman J. J. Fitzgerald, that
"it is a part of the coast defense
to provide anti-aircraft guns for
these naval stations ■ and not
within the jurisdiction of the
Committee on Naval Affairs,"
the Chair ruled that "the defense
of naval stations within those sta-
tions" are "within the jurisdic-
tion of the Committee on Naval
Affairs.

Necessity often changes laws.
The necessity of defending Lon-
don from Zeppelin attacks made
the authorities set aside prece-

Lieutenant of the Royal Navy who, as control officer, regu-
lated the firing and A. B., who laid and flred the anti-aircraft
gun which brought down the "L 20." The officer is holding one
of the shells, the A. B. holding the cartridge-case of the gun.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

One of Uncle Sam'

ited on torpedo destroyer Davit.

dents and appointed Sir Percy Seott, the
naval authority, in charge of the anti-aircraft
defenses of London, a position which he held
until February, 1916. Then, on February 16,
the entire anti-aircraft defenses were put in
charge of Field Marshal Viscount French.

British Anti-Aircraft Defenses

Following is part of Viscount French's illu-
minating official report on Home Defense to
the Secretary of State for War, dated Decem-
ber 31, 1916:

"At the date of my assumption of command,
the question of the anti-aircraft defenses of the
country was under consideration.

"On February 19 it was decided that the
London defenses should be handed over to me,
and on February 26 it was further decided that
I should be responsible for the whole of the
anti-aircraft land defenses of the United King-
dom. Previous to this I had given consider-
able attention to the subject of anti-aircraft de-
fense, and I submitted a scheme for considera-
tion, which was approved and has been carried
out.

"During the winter there was little hostile
activity in this direction, but since I assumed
charge of these defenses enemy airships and
aeroplanes have invaded the country whenever
conditions have admitted. The numbers of
airships taking part in a raid have varied con-

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

59

siderably. On April 3 only one was engaged,
while in the raid of September 2-3 not less than
twelve ships are believed to have taken part.
In all, nineteen raids have been made by aero-
planes. The damage done has been compara-
tively small, and nothing of any military im-
portance has been effected.

"Taken as a whole, the defensive measures
have been successful. In very few cases have
the enemy reached their objective. They have
been turned, driven off, seriously damaged by
gunfire, and attacked with great success by
aeroplanes. Seven have been brought down,
either as the result of gunfire or aeroplane at-
tack, or of both combined.

"The work of the Royal Flying Corps and
the Gun and Light Detachments, including the
Royal Naval Anti-aircraft Corps, has been ar-
duous, and has shown consistent improvement ;
the guns and lights have been effectively han-
dled, and the pilots of the Royal Flying Corps
have shown both skill and daring. All are de-
serving of high praise.

"Close cooperation with the Navy has been
maintained and the R. N. A. S., by their con-
stant and arduous patrol work on the* coast and
overseas, have shared in successful attacks on
the enemy."

It is seen by this report that there is the
closest of cooperation between the British
Army and naval air services in maintaining
the anti-aircraft defenses. The following part
of the official report of the committee which in-
vestigated the Royal Flying Corps in 19'16,
gives further information regarding the respec-
tive share of the two services in the anti-aircraft
defenses of Great Britain:

"A good deal of confusion has arisen upon
the subject as to whether the air services of the
Army or the Navy are responsible for home de-
fense, or whether the responsibility is divided.
The truth is that the Navy was entirely respon-
sible till the middle of February last. Since
that date the responsibility has been divided.
The Navy is responsible until hostile aircraft
reach our shores. From that time the Army is
responsible. It is hardly necessary to state
that if a naval machine was attacking hostile
aircraft it would not cease to do so because the

aircraft crossed the boundary line (highwater
mark), nor would an army machine cease to
pursue hostile air craft when it passed over the
line seawards.

"The Royal Flying Corps is not responsible
for anti-aircraft guns. It has no control over "
them. Nor has it any responsibility for or con-
trol over the searchlights which work in connec-
tion with those guns. The Royal Flying Corps
now has, however, its own searchlights where-
ever home defense machines are maintained.

"The defense of the London area is under
the immediate control of the Commander-in-
Chief for Home Defense. In other areas,
subject to his general control, it is under that

A French naval anti-aircraft gun used during tfae 1914-1915
campaign.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

inti-aircraft gun mounted on a German submarine, which
disappears in a special hatch when the submarine submerges.

of the army officers in command of the particu-
lar anti-aircraft defense areas. Those areas
are not co-terminous with the districts com-
manded by the officers in charge of home de-
fense from attacks other than by aircraft.

"It seems desirable to mention that, while
the Navy was still solely responsible for home
defense, Lord Kitchener issued an order that
army aeroplanes were to render all possible as-
sistance, an order which was very willingly
obeyed.

"The Navy have aerodromes for their own
purposes along the coast, and we think it rea-
sonable to assume, although we have no knowl-
edge on the subject, that, now that the Army is
responsible for home defense, from the coast in-
ward, a similar order has been issued to the
Navy.

"Having regard to the limitations imposed
by the number of aeroplanes, pilots, and night
landing places as yet available, we do not know
that, so far as the Royal Flying Corps is con-
cerned, anything more can be done.

"It ought, we think, to be generally known
that home-defense machines and pilots are not
now stationed at every aerodrome. It must be
supposed that, because aeroplanes are seen fly-
ing freely day by day from a given aerodrome,
there are necessarily any aeroplanes kept at
that aerodrome fit for night flying or any night
flying pilots there to fly them. Home-defense

machines, with their pilots, are now grouped
at various centers, a plan which, after careful
consideration, we approve."

In this report, which covers a dozen large
pages in small print, is found the following re-
port of the investigation of the complaint that
no machines went up on the occasion of the raid
at Dover by a German seaplane over Dover on
or about January 31, 1916:

"It appears that Dover is a naval war sta-
tion, and that the Royal Flying Corps merely
has a training and mobilizing ground there.
On the date in question it happened that Gen-
eral Henderson was inspecting there. He had
just gone into the messroom when he heard the
anti-aircraft guns firing. The only portion of
the Royal Flying Corps at Dover at the time
was a half -completed squadron ready to go
abroad. Directly the guns were heard, the
pilot on duty ascended in pursuit of the Ger-
man seaplane, and was immediately followed
by two naval machines, and these again by an-
other army machine. It appears that the ma-
chines went up in the opposite direction to
Dover, so were not seen by the inhabitants of
that town. The day was rather misty and the

W^/

£!m$

A La- wis aeroplane gun mounted to Are through geared
down hollow propeller shaft of French ISO horsepower Hispano-
Suiza motor on fighting aeroplanes.

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

German seaplane 8000 feet up, so that the
British machines were unable to catch it. An-
other allegation was that the anti-aircraft guns
fired at the British aeroplanes, and there is evi-
dence which points to some rounds having heen tively undamaged condition in Essex.

61

February 21 — LZ77 brought down by
French artillery at Revigny.

March 31 — Ll5 hit by gunfire and fell into
the sea at the mouth of the Thames.

May 4 — L7 destroyed by the fire of British
light cruisers off the coast of Schleswig-Hol-
stein.

May 5— LZ85 destroyed by the fire of the
Allied Fleets at Saloniki.

September 2— A Schutte-Lanz destroyed by
Lieutenant W. Leefe Robinson, R. F. C, at
Cuffley.

September 23 — L32 brought down in flames
in Essex by Second Lieutenant F. Sowrey, R.
F. C.

September 23 — L33 landed in a compara-

fired at one of the naval machines.'

This brings up both the fact that there is
close cooperation between the two British air
services, and that there is danger of shooting at
one's aeroplanes under certain conditions.

Aircraft Brought Down in 1916

According to official reports, during 1916 the
British destroyed 247 and brought down in a
damaged condition 142 German aeroplanes,
and destroyed eight Zeppelins, four of which
were brought down by aviators and four by
anti-aircraft guns. The French destroyed 417
and drove down in a damaged condition 195
machines. Twenty Zeppelin raids on Eng-
land, and six on France, were reported in 1916.
Hundreds of raids by German aero-
planes were reported, but only
eleven cases where the German
aviators succeeded in passing the
three lines on anti-aircraft defenses,
and dropped bombs on English soil.

The official number of aircraft
brought down by the anti-aircraft
defenses of the Central Powers
are not available at date of writ-
ing.

Following is the list of the Zep-
pelins brought down by the British
and French anti-aircraft defenses
in 1916:

October 1 — L31 brought down in flames at
Potter's Bar by Second Lieutenant W. J.
Tempest, R. F. C.

November 27 — A Zeppelin brought down
off the northeast coast by Second Lieutenant I.
V. Pyott, R. F. C.

November 28 — A Zeppelin brought down off
the east coast by Flight Sub-Lieutenant E. L.
Pulling, Flight Lieutenant G. W. R. Fane, of
the R. N. A. S.

Efficient Anti-Aircraft Defense in 1916 Bring
Reduced Aircraft Insurance Rates

Efficient anti-aircraft defenses in 1916 re-
sulted in the British Government cutting down
the insurance against enemy aircraft. This

The armored cars of the British Royal N

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Austrian seaplane shown in this photo, attacked the French cruiser La Saroie, which was embarking Serb-
ian troops, at Valona, in the Adriatic, and was brought down by the fire of French gunners.

first change in the British Government rate for
insurance against enemy aircraft and bombard-
ment risks since the scheme was inaugurated on
July 19, 1915, was announced on February 13.
It takes the form of a discount of 50 per cent,
in respect of all rates, subject to the minimum
premium payable in respect of any one insur-
ance not being reduced below 2s. Two shil-
lings is the present rate for insuring private
houses and their contents and buildings in which
no trade is carried on, for £100, so that the rate
for insuring all private property of the value
of £200 or more is halved to Is. per cent. The

existing rates under the scheme are as fol-
lows:

All other buildings and their rents 3

Farming stocks (live and dead) 3

Contents of all buildings, other than in
private houses and in premises speci-
fied below 5

Merchandise at docks and public wharves,
in carriers' and canal warehouses and
yards, in public mercantile storage
warehouses, and in transit by rail; tim-
ber in the open; mineral oil tanks and
stores (wholesale) 7

The Zeppelin "L ]5"
photographed off the
Kentish Coast just be-
fore it disappeared be-
neath the waves, having
been hit by the nnti air-
craft guns, durina the
night of March 31-
April 1st, 1916.

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

British naval anti-aircraft gun crew getting ready t
aeroplanes at Salonika.

German and Turkish

The new terms, which represent half of the
above rates, went into effect until March 1.
All the government rates are for twelve calen-
dar months, except as regards the property
named in the last paragraph above. For these
risks policies are issued for six months at three
fourths of the annual premium, for three
months at one half the annual rate, and for
one month at one fourth of the annual pre-
mium.

The damages on which insurance was paid by
the British Government went up to tens of mil-
lions in 1915; they are reported to have been
less in proportion in 1916.

Our anti-aircraft defenses are far from being
sufficient to meet an emergency, and it will be

necessary to make up for this deficiency by or-
ganizing numerous squadrons of fighting sea-
planes and mounting anti-aircraft guns on the
new submarine chasers and fast motor boats.
The task of the Reserves will be to prevent air-
craft from reaching the shores after the air-
craft have passed the anti-aircraft guns of the
battleships, which will be the first line of de-
fense. There should be large fleets of yachts,
submarine chasers, and motor boats ready to
meet any emergency.

Above all, practice in shooting at flying kites
should take place as soon as possible, so that the
anti-aircraft gunners may have experience, and
may be ready to protect our coasts from air-
craft attacks.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER IX

THE AERIAL DEFENSES NEEDED FOR THE THIRTEEN NAVAL DISTRICTS
OF THE UNITED STATES AND TWO INSULAR NAVAL DISTRICTS

If it requires hundreds of aeroplanes, dirigi-
bles, and observation balloons to patrol the
coasts of Great Britain, which aggregate about
1500 miles of coast line, we will need thousands
to patrol our 2500 miles of coast line in the
United States and almost as much in our pos-
sessions — and to protect the millions of dollars
worth of supplies which are to be sent to Eu-
rope and the ships which carry them.

The thirteen naval districts in the United
States and their headquarters are as follows:
(1) Eastport, Maine, to include Chatham,
Massachusetts ; headquarters, Boston. ( 2 )
Chatham, to include New London, Connecticut ;
headquarters, Narragansett Bay Naval Station.
(3) New London, to include Barnegat, New
Jersey; headquarters, New York. (4) Barne-
gat, to include Assateague, Virginia ; headquar-
ters, Philadelphia. (5) Assateague, to include
New River Inlet, North Carolina; headquar-
ters, Norfolk. (6) New River Inlet, to include
St. John's River, Florida; headquarters,
Charleston. (7) St. John's River, Florida, to
include Tampa, Florida; headquarters, Key
West. (8) Tampa, Florida, to include Rio
Grande; headquarters, New Orleans. (9)
Lake Michigan, headquarters, Naval Training
Station, Great Lakes. (10) Lakes Erie and
Ontario ; headquarters, Naval Training Station,
Great Lakes. (11) Lakes Huron and Su-
perior; headquarters, Naval Training Station,
Great Lakes. (12) Southern Boundary to
Latitude 42°N.; headquarters, San Francisco.
(13) Latitude 42°N., to Northern Boundary;
headquarters, Port Townsend, Washington.

A very comprehensive plan of aerial coast
patrol suitable for the fifteen naval districts was
submitted to Rear-Admiral Nathaniel R.
Usher, the commandant of the third naval dis-
trict by the Aero Club of America's Board
cooperating with the commandant in the or-

ganization of the Naval Reserve Forces, of
which the writer is secretarv.

This report, which was made a congressional
document, is reproduced herewith in part:

New York, April %d, 1917.

To: Rear Admiral Nathaniel R. Usher, Command-
ant, Third Naval District.
From: Alan R. Hawley, Chairman, Advisory Cowr
mittee on Aeronautics, cooperating with the
Commandant in the organization of the Naval
Reserve Forces.
Subject: Aerial Defenses Needed for the Third

Noval District.

Aerial, Defenses Needed for the Third Naval

District

{Extending from New London to Barnegat)

Duties. — The air service of the Third Naval Dis-
trict has the following duties to perform. All of these
have been done in the Great War :

(a) To locate, and assist destroyers, trawlers and
submarine chasers in capturing or destroying
hostile submarines (both seaplanes and dirigi-
bles are needed).

(b) To locate submerged mines and assist trawlers
in destroying mines. (Seaplanes, dirigibles
and observation balloons needed.)

(c) Searching the coasts for submarine bases.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles needed.)

(d) To convoy troop and merchant ships on coast-
wise trips. (Dirigibles best adapted for this
work.)

(e) To patrol the coasts, holding up and inspecting
doubtful ships and convoying them to examin-
ing stations. (Dirigibles best adapted for this
work.)

(f) Attacking hostile ships and submarines that
may show up near the coasts, with torpedoes,
bombs and guns. (Large torpedoplanes and
large seaplanes mounting guns best adapted.)

(g) Protecting ships at sea and in ports against
attack from hostile submarines and battleships.
(Seaplanes and dirigibles needed.)

(h) Communicating to incoming ships information

64

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66

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

regarding the location of mines, submarines
and the courses to follow to avoid disasters and
confusion. (Seaplanes and dirigibles needed.)

(i) Serving as the "eyes" of mine planters, minim-
izing the time required for mine planting.
(Dirigibles and observation balloons best
adapted for this work.)

( j ) Defending and protecting naval bases and sta-
tions from naval and aerial attacks. (Armed
air cruisers and combat planes needed.)

Besides the above, the Naval Air Service in other
countries has been used for many other purposes, but
the Air Service of the Third Naval District need not
concern itself with the other purposes, which are to be
performed by the aviators connected with the fleet.

Divisions. — The territory comprised in the Third
Naval District should be divided into divisions to be
served by aeronautic stations established in each di-
vision, so as not to weaken the efficiency of the service
by sending aircraft on too extended cruises. The lack
of large dirigibles capable of long cruises necessitates
costly and inefficient makeshifts, and it is necessary
to follow as closely as possible the example of Great
Britain and establish the aeronautic stations close
enough to get utmost efficiency out of each type of
aircraft available. Great Britain has an aeronautic
station at about every twenty miles along her coasts,
numbering 107 in all. The aircraft available for the
Air Service of the Third Naval District within sixty
days will be seaplanes equipped with two or three
motors, which may be entrusted with flights of about
eighty miles out to sea and return, at a speed of eighty
miles an hour; and seaplanes equipped with a single
motor which may, if supported by water-craft, be en-
trusted with flights extending twenty miles out to sea
and return at a speed of 60 miles an hour ; and obser-
vation balloons which can be put on board ships or
barges and can be used from whatever positions these
ships occupy.

The limit on continuous flight out to sea is placed
here because while many aviators have made flights of
several hundred miles along the coasts, very few of our
aviators have had experience in actual aerial naviga-
tion over water. Until they have gained this experi-
ence their flights seaward should be limited in distance
and with every seaplane sent out on patrol duty there
should be sent out one or two boats with observers,
whose duty is to keep track of the flight with power-
ful glasses, and be ready to rush to the assistance of
the aviators.

After ninety days it will be possible to get larger
air cruisers, some of which are under construction ;
and small dirigibles of the coast patrol type, sixteen
of which were ordered by the Navy Department on
March 12th.

Location of Divisions. — In considering the location

of divisions, there must also be considered the neces-
sity of establishing one of the divisions as far as pos-
sible out at sea where the aircraft may have the oppor-
tunity of detecting hostile submarines while they are
on the surface. On approaching the land, hostile
submarines logically submerge so as not to be seen.
Therefore, a division should be established at Montauk
Point. On the other hand, the divisions having
charge of keeping channels clear of mines and subma-
rines must be located as near as possible to the chan-
nels. For instance, the New York Division, having
as one of its duties to keep the channel clear up to the
50th fathom curve, which is about 85 miles from
Sandy Hook, must include in its equipment large mul-
tiple motored seaplanes, capable of long distance
cruises.

For efficiencv, ten aeronautic stations should be
established in the Third Naval District, to be located
approximately as follows:

0)

(2)
(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

07)
(8)

(9)
(10)

Sandy Hook (Aeronautic Base).
Montauk Point (Aeronautic Base).
Bay Shore (Station being established by the
New York Naval Militia).
Port Washington (Already established by the
America-TransOceanic Co., Offices, 280 Madi-
son Avenue, N. Y.).

Amity ville (One hangar and workshop already
established by the Sperry Gyroscope Co., Man-
hattan Bridge Plaza, Brooklyn, N. Y.).
Ocean Beach (New Jersey).
Seaside Park (Barnegat Bay).
Rockawav or Manhattan Beach or Massa-
pequa, Great South Bay, L. I.
New Haven (Connecticut).
Southampton.

Equipment for Stations. — The flying equipment of
each station varies according to the duties of that sta-
tion. In a general way, until dirigibles and observa-
tion balloons are obtained, the territory to be covered
by each station will be covered by units consisting of
one aviator and one observer, having at their disposal
three aeroplanes, one of which must always be in
flying order. Each of these units is expected to fly
about 200 miles each day when the weather permits.
Whenever the distance to be covered is so great that
a unit only covers it once in the course of its 200-mile
flight, as in the case of the unit which will have to pro-
tect the channel down to the 50th fathom curve and
back, starting from the Sandy Hook base, there will
be required a sufficient number of units to make it pos-
sible for a unit to start every half hour beginning
with daylight and ending at sundown.

As at present the daylight lasts about twelve hours,
there would be required 24 units to patrol the channel

NAVAL ANTI-AIRCRAFT DEFENSES

67

course, a unit starting every half hour. That would
necessitate having 24 units with three machines to
each unit or 72 machines in all. The same is true at
the Montauk Point station, which would have to pa-
trol part of Block Island Sound and go as far out at
sea as possible to look out for hostile submarines.
The smaller stations, the duties of which are essen-
tially to search the bays for submarines and convoy
coastwise shipping, would need a smaller number of
units, unless the call for aerial patrol and convoying
was heavy.

The equipment required for each station depends
on the importance of the station from a strategic
standpoint. In some cases, the station can consist of
only a sufficient number of hangars to house the aero-
planes, with a workshop, storage for gasoline, oil, etc.,
and the necessary housing for the officers and men.
In other cases, the stations must have hangars for
aeroplanes, dirigibles and observation balloons ; motor
and machine shops ; hydrogen plant, magazines, erect-
ing shops, stores, an aerologic station, wireless station,
listening towers, searchlights and anti-aircraft guns
for the protection of the station. Also provision for
aeroplane mother ships, kite balloon ships, and mine
laying ships, to cooperate with the aeronautic station ;
and the necessary watercraft.

Until dirigibles and observation balloons can be ob-
tained, the entire work must^be done by aeroplanes.

A single dirigible of the Zeppelin type could do the
work of patrolling the channel from Sandy Hook to
the 50th fathom curve, which is 85 miles out at sea,
better than the 72 seaplanes hereinbefore mentioned.
But no number of small scouting dirigibles could do
that same work, excepting in the best of weather con-
ditions because the small dirigibles would be carried
away by or could not travel against the average wind
to be met along the channel.

Under fair weather conditions there could be placed
four or six observation balloons along the channel,
anchored on barges or suitable ships. Slow moving
ships with the observation balloons could, under nor-
mal conditions, do the work of the 72 aeroplanes. On
sighting a hostile submarine, or mines, the observers
would wireless the information to the shore station
and summon cruisers, air cruisers, submarine chasers
or the trawlers in charge of mine sweeping.

There should be in addition to the stations at least
one aeronautic base in the naval district. It may be
stated that all the personnel required for the air serv-
ice of the district has to be trained, there being prac-
tically no trained personnel available. The personnel
should be trained at the aeronautic base.

The Sandy Hook and Montauk Point stations
should be most complete, their equipment including
the seventy-two aeroplanes required to maintain a
steady patrol for twelve hours daily and at least two
dirigibles and two observation balloons.

The aviators, dirigible pilots, observation balloon
operators and observers for the three kinds of aircraft
would be trained partly at these stations and partly
at two other stations which, while not so extensive in
general equipment, would have extensive facilities for
instruction. The equipment needed for the last men-
tioned two stations would consist of about 24 sea-
planes to be used for coast patrol, and about 18 aero-
planes and one dirigible and one observation balloon,
respectively, for training.

The number of torpedoplanes and of large seaplanes
mounting three-inch guns needed for the aerial de-
fenses of the Third Naval District is not estimated
herewith, because the number required will depend en-
tirely on how extensively shipping in the Third Naval
District is subject to attack from hostile ships and
submarines.

Large seaplanes equipped with three-inch guns
would be powerful factors of offense and defense also
as they can sink destroyers, submarines, transports,
etc. The large seaplanes required for this purpose
are obtainable, one having been delivered to the Navy
recently. Both the torpedoplane and the seaplane
equipped with a three-inch gun represent an extraordi-
nary combination of mobility and power, which combi-
nation promises to revolutionize naval warfare. Their
great speed and their ability to fly in a straight line
over all natural obstructions, make it possible to
mobilize their power at any point from Barnegat to
Montauk Point, within two hours.

The other six stations would require about twelve
seaplanes each. The above is, to some extent, based
on the British and French experience. At the begin-
ning of the War, Great Britain had only 18 aero-
nautic stations. To-day she has 107, one fifth of
which are large aeronautic bases. France has about
150 aeronautic stations.

There is practically no trained personnel available,
but it w r ill be possible to get, to start,' at least twenty
civilian aviators, professional and amateurs, who have
had some experience in marine flying, although no ex-
perience in actual naval operations or in the operation
of twin motored aeroplanes. There can also be had
about twenty students who are about to complete their
preliminary course in the operation of single motored
seaplanes. About two hundred more students, mostly
college men who have joined the Aerial Coast Patrol
units, will be under training in the Third Naval
District within two months, several large avi-
ation training camps being established at private ex-
pense. These are part of the hundreds of college
men who wanted to join the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps, but could not, because the Navy Department
has not the aeronautic training schools at which to
train them.

The entire personnel of the Air Service will com-
prise for the Third Naval District about 150 aviators

68

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

and aviation instructors ; thirty dirigible balloon pilots
and thirty observation balloon operators. Also as
many observers as there are pilots and operators.
There will be required an average of one chief me-
chanic and three assistant mechanics to each aviator.

For each dirigible in operation there must be a crew
of mechanics and a company of enlisted men to act in
docking the dirigible. To each observation balloon
there is required a crew of mechanics and a company
of men.

How Far Should Naval

Carry Their Operations Over Land?

How far should naval airmen carry their
operations over land is a question that began to
be asked in the early days when the first Zep-
pelins, which were built for naval work and
housed in a floating hangar, were first put in
operation. No definite answer has been given
so far, although the matter has been brought up
in a number of instances in Europe in connec-
tion with questions of defining the responsibili-
ties of the land and the naval air services. The
committee which investigated the administra-
tion of the British Royal Flying Corps in its
official report to the British Government es-
tablished a line of demarcation to divide the
respective duties of the land and naval aviators
as follows :

"A good deal of confusion has arisen upon
the subject as to whether the air services of the
Army or the Navy are responsible for home
defense, or whether the responsibility is divided.
The truth is that the Navy was entirely re-
sponsible till the middle of February last.
Since that date the responsibility has been di-

vided. The Navy is responsible until hostile
air-craft reach our shores. From that time the
Army is responsible. It is hardly necessary to
state that if a naval machine was attacking hos-
tile aircraft it would not cease to do so because
the aircraft crossed the boundary line (high-
water mark) , nor would an army machine cease
to pursue hostile air craft when it passed over
the line seawards."

But any line of demarkation is subject to be
taken exception to, as often as necessary, as was
shown by the fact that throughout the present
war naval aviators have been used for raids over
land, flying land aeroplanes. It will be re-
membered likewise that the United States Navy
aviators flew over land during our occupation
of Vera Cruz, in 1914. They actually flew in
hydroaeroplanes and flying boats over the Mex-
ican hills and mountains. (See chapters on
"Aerial Strategy and Tactics," "United States
Navy Aeronautics.")

CHAPTER X
ADMINISTRATION OF A NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION

A naval aeronautic station mav be an aero-
nautic base or merely a station from which sea-
planes, dirigibles, and observation balloons are
operated. The equipment required for each
station depends on the importance of the station
from a strategic standpoint. .In some cases, the
station can consist of only a sufficient number
of hangars to house the aeroplanes, with a
workshop, storage for gasoline, oil, etc., and the
necessary housing for the officers and men. In
other cases, the stations must have hangars for
aeroplanes, dirigibles, and observation balloons ;
motor and machine shops; hydrogen plant,
magazines, erecting shops, stores, an aerologic
station, wireless station, listening towers,
searchlights, and anti-aircraft guns for the pro-
tection of the station as well as provision for
seaplane carriers, kite-balloon ships, and
mine laying ships, to cooperate with the aero-
nautic station; and the necessarv watercraft.
The accompanying drawing shows the plan for
a complete naval base, with all the important
buildings and departments of a naval aero-
nautic base. On the following page will be
found the photograph of a smaller seaplane sta-
tion.

An excellent illustration of the completeness
of the organizations of naval aero stations may
be gained from the telephone directory of the
United States Government Station at Pen-
sacola, Florida, which includes extensions to the
commandant; captain of yard; inside superin-
tendent; radio station; planning division, aero-
nautic secretary; yard section; sentry, office
building; labor board; flying school; watch
tower; pay officer; hangars; supply depart-
ment; accounting department; supply store-
house; supply purchasing section; aeroplane
erecting shop ; motor erecting shop, storeroom ;
truck house; joiner shop; machine shop; store-
house, yard division; power house; quarters of
captain of watch ; pumping station ; dispensary

and sick quarters; drafting room; commanding
officer, marines; post quartermaster; ship's
'phone, crib wharf; wet basin; seamen's bar-
racks, and bachelor officers' mess.

Regulations for the United States Navy Aero-
nautic Station, Pensacola, Florida

While the regulations for the administra-
tions of a naval aeronautic base or station
necessarilv varv in detail, the fundamental
regulations are essentially the same. The fol-
lowing regulations for the United States sta-
tion at Pensacola may be applied:

Ships at Anchor or Berthed at the Yard

Berths at the piers will be assigned by the Captain
of the Yard. Ship's boats will be secured at places
designated by the Captain of the Yard.

The crew of the ships will not be permitted to wan-
der around the yard or shops. In case of work being
done in the shops by the enlisted force of a ship, only
those directly connected with the work will enter the
shop, and some responsible person will account for all
tools used.

Yard regulations will be supplied to ships on ar-
rival at the yard and should be returned to the Cap-
tain of the Yard before departure. Attention is in-
vited to the fire bill. In case of fire, ships will send
fire details in accordance with their ship organization
bills.

Liberty parties will be formed on the dock and
marched to the main gate. Liberty men will return
through this gate.

Ships will keep the pier clean where the ship is
berthed. Garbage cans will be provided in which all
garbage will be placed. These cans will be collected
by yard force at regular hours.

Ships at anchor will furnish the Captain of the
Yard with a copy of their boat schedule, and will have
their mail orderly call at office of Inside Superintend-
ent on regular trips.

Long wharf and the basin will be used by ship's
boats. The center wharf is reserved for boats used
by the Flying School.

Ships at piers will dump ashes in places designated
by the Captain of the Yard. Boxes will not be thrown

69

will preclude the n

Plan of a well appointed naval aeronautic center. Establishing completely equipped a
sity of continuous adding, which is so inefficient and wasteful.

Xo provision is made here for extra large cruisers because there has not yet been decided how such air cruisers can best be
housed, being somewhat too large to be taken to u hangar on shore. The solution will probably rest with building large hangars
on the water edge.

It will be noted that provision has been made for four anti-aircraft guns, placed so as to almost form a square, for the protec-
tion of the station from aircraft attacks. There are also four Listening Towers and four searchlights provided. The dirigible sheds
are of the revolving type, so that the airships can go out no matter which way the wind blows.

70

r tin- defense i)f tin- station from

s made for a hangar for a squadron of land aeroplanes, to provide against the
permit launching seaplanes, but the atmospheric conditions lire suitable for bind machines. A Is
aircraft attacks. Land aeroplanes are used to a great extent by naval aviators in all countries.

Provision is made for a nunc layer to cooperate with the station, so that the aviators and the dirigible and kite balloon operators
can practice in locating mines and assist in planting mines.

The seaplane carrier and the kite balloonsliip are absolutely necessary to have ready for the fleet to train personnel for the
mother ships. A seaplane carrier and a balloon ship should be allowed for every eight battleships. The arrologic station is a most
essential thing and it should be completely equipped with the latest instruments.

71

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

One of the 107 British seaplane stations which supply the daily aerial const patrol for the protection of British shipping. This
aerial photograph, taken from one of the seaplanes, shows one of the smaller stations. One of the seaplanes is shown in the water,
"taxying" to the runway.

The seaplanes from these numerous stations keep a constant watch for U-boats and protect ships from U-boat attacks.

overboard as they are liable to damage the pontoons
of the hydroaeroplanes.

Ships in passing the yard will slow down to such
speed that their bow or stern wave will not damage
the hangar runways and boats at the docks.

Automobiles

Officers and enlisted men attached to the station or
to ships at the station, and others residing on the
naval reservation, owners of automobiles or motor-
cycles, may obtain Aero Station License by applica-
tion to the Captain of the Yard.

An annual fee prescribed by the Captain of the
Yard will be charged for such license, payable on
purchase of machine and renewed January 1st of each
year. A record of all licenses issued will be kept by
the Captain of the Yard and no automobile or motor-
cycle will be allowed to operate on the reservation
without a license. The proceeds of such licenses will
be used for the upkeep of the roads leading to the
navy yard.

The owner of an automobile or motorcycle license
will be held responsible at all times, irrespective of who

may be driving, for the proper observation of traffic
and station regulations under the penalty of having
such license revoked.

No enlisted man or yard workman shall do any work
necessitating the use of government tools, machines,
etc., on private automobiles, motor boats, etc., nor
shall automobiles be taken inside the Machine Shops
without permission of the Captain of the Yard. En-
listed men may work on automobiles, motor boats, etc.,
owned by individuals attached to the station on holi-
days and after working hours, but in no case shall
such work entail the use of government material.

Parking space for automobiles will be designated by
the Captain of the Yard.

All motor vehicles entering the yard will be notified
at the gate that the speed limit is 12 miles per hour;
also that running on brick pavements and sidewalks
and the use of muffler cut-outs is prohibited.

Fibe-Regitlations

The signal for fire will be the rapid ringing of the

fire bell at the North West Gate and near flagstaff, also

blowing of the whistle followed by a pause then a

ADMINISTRATION OF A NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION

73

number of strokes or toots designating the district.
The reservation and yard is divided into districts as
follows :

No. 1 — Navy Yard — North Avenue to North Wall
— 1 toot on whistle and 1 stroke on bell.

No. % — Navy Yard — South Avenue to North Ave-
nue — 2 toots on whistle and 2 strokes on
bell.

No. 3. — Navy Yard — Water front to South Ave-
nue — 8 toots on whistle and 3 strokes on
bell.

No. 4 — Naval reservation — Warrington — 4 toots
on whistle and 4 strokes on bell.

No. 5 — Naval reservation — Woolsey — 5 toots on
whistle and 5 strokes on bell.

The fire main and plugs are situated as follows:
From pumping station near old hospital down Canal
Street, Warrington to Navy Yard. In navy yard
along West Avenue, North Avenue, East Avenue,
South Avenue and Center Avenue. A line also cuts off
from West Avenue near G. S. Storehouse to Center
Avenue near Power House. A line branches off from
North Avenue near alley East of Commandant's house
to the Magazine along Magazine Street in Woolsey.

The fire hose and reels are situated as follows :

No. 1 — Near flagstaff, North Avenue.

No. 2 — Opposite Building No. 9, East Avenue.

No. 3 — Near hydrogen plant, South Avenue.

No. 4 — Near West Gate, South Avenue.

No. 5" — Warrington on Canal Street, near corner

of Newton Avenue-
No. 6" — Woolsey on corner Magazine Street and

Howard Stret.

General Fire Quarters

1. When a fire signal is sounded, the telephone oper-
ator will notify the pumping station and tell man in
charge to start pumps, will ascertain place of fire,
notify Commandant, Captain of the Yard, Officer of
the Day, Flying School Office, Erecting Shop, Com-
manding Officer of Marines, Seamen's Barracks. All
messages in regard to the fire will take the precedence
to other messages.

2. In case of fire in the yard all gates will be closed
and no one not connected with the station will be al-
lowed to enter until secure is sounded.

3. In case of fire in or near the hangars or build-
ings where hydr aeroplanes are stowed, the hydroaero-
planes will be run out into water and canvas hangars
knocked down to smother the fire or keep it from
spreading.

4. All boats will be manned and gotten ready for
use as directed.

5. All men not detailed on a hose reel will equip
themselves with buckets and axes and proceed to scene

of fire, officers in charge of such details will provide
for such details.

6. The Captain of the Yard will be in general
charge at scene of fire. The officer of the Day will be
his assistant. In the absence of the Captain of the
Yard, the Officer of the Day will take charge until the
different details have arrived, when the senior line
officer present will take charge.

7. Naval ships in the harbor will send details in ac-
cordance with their ship organization bills, and the
officer in charge of details will report to officer in
charge at scene of fire.

8. The recall will be three blasts on the steam
whistle.

Fire in Yard — Day
The enlisted men of the Flying School under the
officer in charge will man hose reels Nos. 1 and 4 and
proceed to scene of fire reporting to Captain of the
Yard. The enlisted men of the Erecting Shop and
Machine Shop under the senior officer of the two shops
will man hose reel No. 8 and proceed to scene of fire
reporting to Captain of Yard. The marines will man
hose reel No. 2, proceed to scene of fire and report to
Captain of Yard.

Fire in Yard — Night
The seaman watch will man hose reel No. 4 and
proceed to fire. Other enlisted men in the barracks
will be divided into details by the Captain of the
Watch, one detail to hose reel No. 1, one detail to hose
reel No. 3, and other details equipped with buckets
and axes. The marines will man hose reel No. 2.

Fire Outside Navy Yard — Day
A detail from Flying School will man hose reel No.
4, a detail will be equipped with buckets and axes and
sent to scene of fire. The Marines will man hose reel
No. 2 and proceed to scene of fire. The citizens of
Warrington and Woolsey will man hose reel Nos. 5
and 6.

station ufter a flight.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

A United States Naval Aeronautic Station "Somewhere

The watch will man hose reel No. 4, a detail of en-
listed men in the barracks will be equipped with buck-
ets and axes. Otherwise fire bell same as day.

Washwomen

Washwomen will be permitted to receive clothes on
Mondays only and deliver them on Thursdays and
Saturdays only. They will remain outside buildings
18 and 25, and on no account will enter the buildings
or loiter around the entrances.

Lunches may be sold in the yard by applying for
permission to Captain of Yard. The time of such
traffic will be limited to the noon hour, mid-day to 1
p.m., and only authorized articles will be sold. The
dealers of such articles may sell their goods in front
of the shops but are not to enter any building and
must clean up any paper or food stuff left over. Un-
cooked food will not be sold.

Visitors

Visitors will not be permitted to enter any ship
or hangar except when accompanied by an officer at
any other than noon hours, No visitors will be per-
mitted under any circumstances to enter any shop at
any time without a written permission. Officers in
charge of shops will make necessary arrangements to
enforce this regulation, and in all cases the permission
must be shown and initialed in each shop visited.

Shops will not be opened to visitors on Sundays and

Holidays except by special permission from the Com-
mandant. Visitors will not be allowed to question
any of the workmen. All officers and enlisted men
should assist in preventing unauthorized persons from
entering or wandering around the yard. Visitors will
not be allowed to bring kodaks in the yard or to take
any pictures. All officers and enlisted men will keep a
careful watch for visitors taking unauthorized pic-
tures.

Fishing

In the future no written passes with permission to
fish will be accepted by the marines on duty at the
gates. Twenty-five brass checks will be furnished the
sentry at the Main Gate, and each colored person
desiring to fish will be given a check which will serve as
his pass. This check must be turned in at the Main
Gate upon leaving the yard. Twenty-five checks per
day will be issued for the use of whites. All colored
fishermen will be required to fish from the East wharf.
The wharf to the Westward of the wet basin will be
reserved for the use of whites. All persons are warned
that the docks must be left clean and neat and free
from all scraps of unused bait, paper, etc. Persons
guilty of neglect of this order will be denied fishing
privileges for a period commensurate with the extent
of their untidiness. Fishing hours are from 8 a.m. to
sunset.

Shop Regulations

1. Ships will be kept clean and in good order at alt
times.

ADMINISTRATION OF A NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION

75

2. Smoking, except in offices, is prohibited.

3. No open light, such as blow torch, acetylene light,
etc., shall be left unattended, and no open light of any
sort will be brought near engine assembling or testing
stands. Fire extinguishers will be kept ready for use
at all times.

1. In case of fire notify the Captain of Yard imme-
diately.

5. All tools shall be kept in the tool room and drawn
only by check. Tools shall be returned after using.
In case a tool is broken in use, it shall be turned into
the toot room and attention called to its condition,
The tool room keeper shall keep a list of all tools
broken or lost, and by whom broken or lost, which list
will be submitted to the office on Friday morning.

6. No shop machines will be used by outside men
without authority from the Planning Division.

7. No work will be done in the shops that is not
covered by a written work order, or, in an emergency,
by a verbal work order.

8. Shops will be closed by the janitors after work-
ing hours and the keys turned in to Captain of the
Watch. The janitors will get the keys and open up
the shops by 8 a.m. No unauthorized person will be
allowed to have keys to any shop, and doors and win-
dows will be kept locked except when authorized work
is being done in a shop.

Regulations foe Enlisted Personnel Unifobms
Enlisted men will wear regulation uniforms. Dur-
ing working hours regulation dungarees may be worn
and full piece bathing suits may be worn by those
handling aeroplanes in the water. Liberty parties
will wear the prescribed uniform in entering and leav-
ing the yard. Civilian clothes will not be permitted
to be kept in the yard.

Officers assigned to office duty will wear the pre-
scribed service uniform or civilian clothes. Officers
in the Flying School and in the Shops may wear fly-
ing uniform when engaged in these duties. All officers
will keep a complete service uniform in the yard ; lock-
ers will be provided for those officers not living in the
yard.

Liberty

No liberty list will be made. After working hours
all enlisted men not on watch or otherwise restricted
may go on liberty. Liberty is up at 7 :50 a.m. of the
following morning unless extended by special permis-
sion from the Captain of the Yard. No liberty
granted during working hours except by special per-
mission. A list of those restricted from liberty will be
published in the seamen's quarters and at Main Gate.

Barracks
The chief master at arms will have full and absolute
charge of Building 25 and the surroundings and will
be held responsible for both the sanitation and dis-
cipline. All subordinates will carry out his orders
promptly, absolutely and rigidly.

Routine

WEEK

days

6:30 a.m.

Reveille.

7:00 a.m.

Breakfast.

7:50 a.m.

Muster in and go to work.

8:00 a.m.

Turn to.

11: 45 a.m.

Knock off.

12:15 p.m.

Dinner,

12:55 p.m.

Muster.

1:00 p.m.

Turn to.

4: 15 p.m.

Knock off.

One of the Curtiss school machines, which is the most popular type here.

76

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

5 : 00 p.m.
9:00 p.m.

10:00 p.m.

Supper.

All unnecessary lights out, except stand-
ing lights.
All lights out, except standing lights.

SUNDAYS AND HOLIDAYS

7:00 a.m. Reveille.
7:30 a.m. Breakfast.
8 : 30 a.m. Muster.
Otherwise same as week days.

Bedding will be aired on Friday by turning the bed-
ding over the foot of the bed and rolling the mattress
back at the head of the bed.

Reading Room. — The reading room will be used as
a place to keep magazines and to write letters. No
loud conversations will be permitted.

Returning at Night. — Men who have been on lib-
erty and return at night will be quiet and not disturb
others who have turned in.

Visitors. — Visitors will not be permitted in Building
25 except by permission of the Captain of the Yard,
or, in his absence, by the Officer of the Day.

Telephone. — The telephone will not be used for
personal conversation.

Turning Out. — All hands will turn out promptly
at 6:30 a.m., except on Sunday.

Inspection. — The quarters will be inspected daily
by the Officer of the Day.

Late Meals. — Whenever a man or party of men
will be delayed for a meal, they will endeavor to notify
the C. M. A. A. or Commissary Steward at least half
an hour before meal time of the delay and how long
they will be delayed.

The Commissary Steward will have charge of the
mess gear and mess cooks will sign receipts for same
and be responsible.

Field Day. — Field day for general cleaning will be
held every Friday.

Mess Tables. — Mess tables and mess benches will
be scrubbed and dried in the sun every Thursday.

The Watch

The watch shall consist of two chief petty officers,
one of whom shall be a line petty officer, and a desig-
nated number of lower ratings. The watch list will be
made out in the Captain of the Yard's Office and shall
contain a sufficient number of men for sentry duty
and to handle the yard fire equipment. The watch
list will be published at the 7:50 a.m. muster and the
details to sentry post made. No changes shall be
made in the watch list without permission from the
Captain of the Yard. The tour of duty shall be for
24 hours ; during the day the watch may proceed with
their regular duties but are subject to a call.

The number of posts and duties of the sentries shall
be as prescribed by the Captain of the Yard.

The Captain of the Watch shall notify the watch

what sentry duties they have, see that the sentries are
posted at 4:30 p.m., shall personally inspect the elec-
tric flash light in the watchtower, shall make a thor-
ough inspection of the water front after w r orking hours
and shall make at least two inspections of the yard and
sentry posts after eight o'clock at night. He shall
keep himself informed as to the whereabouts of the
Officer of the Day. He shall be familiar with the
fire regulations and shall divide the watch in accord-
ance with fire bill.

The janitors of each building and shop will lock
up their respective shop after working hours and turn
in the keys to the Captain of the Watch. In case of
work being done in a shop after working hours the
key will be turned in and the Captain of the Watch
will lock up when work is completed. The Captain of
the Watch will make inspection of all buildings after
receiving the keys to see that they are properly se-
cured. The janitors will get the keys before 8 a.m.
and open up the shops. The keys of the offices in
Building 45 will be kept by the sentry on duty in that
building. The watchman on duty will have a set of
keys to all buildings. All other keys will be turned
in to the Captain of the Yard.

Sentry watches other than marine posts will be
stood as follows:

WEEK DAYS

4 : 30 p.m. to 8 p.m.
8 p.m. to midnight,
midnight to 2 a.m.

2. A.M. to 4 A.M.
4 A.M. to 6 A.M.
6 A.M. to 8 A.M.

SUNDAYS

Regular four hour watch
from midnight Saturday
to 8 a.m. Monday.
Saturdays : During months
of half holidays watch
starts at noon.

The men on watch will be relieved by their reliefs for
meals.

The Log

The log book and necessary instruments will be kept
in the Radio office. The radio man on watch will fill
in the columns. The Officer of the Day will see that
the columns are properly kept and after conferring
with the Captain of the Yard will write in the remarks.
The smooth log will be written up by the j r eoman in
the Captain of the Yard's office.

Duties of Boat Officee

1. All student naval aviators not assigned to per-
manent detail in the shops will do duty as boat officer.

2. The tour of duty will start at 8 a.m. on flying
days and finish with the completion of flying on that
day.

3. The tour of duty will be taken in order of rank.
In case a tour of duty as Officer of the Day and as
Boat Officer should occur on the same day for same
officer, the duty as Officer of the Day takes precedence
and duty as boat officer falls on next officer in rank.

4. The Boat Officer is not to leave the dock during

ADMINISTRATION OF A NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION

77

flying hours under any circumstances without a relief.

5. In case he is due for flying he will get the next
available officer on detail to relieve him for the neces-
sary time.

6. He will see that speed boat, is kept ready and
equipped during flying hours. He will keep in touch
with the watch tower and go out in the speed boat
when called in case of accident.

7. He will report to Officer in Charge of Flying
School at 8 a.m., number of boats available for duty.

Duties of Naval Officer of the Day

1. All commissioned line officers of the station other
than those doing duty as heads of departments or fly-
ing school instructors will do duty as Officer of the
Day, taking turns in order of rank.

2. Tour of duty will be for 24 hours beginning at
8 a.m.

3. The new officer of the day will see that the boats
are ready for duty, the speed boats tested out, and
other boats started to their stations.

4. He will see that his name plate is posted at Sen-
try Box, Quarters A, Captain of the Yard's Office and
Flying School.

5. He will report to the Captain of the Yard at
about 8 :30 a.m. for new orders or instructions.

6. He will see that the proper watch detail is made
and will let the Captain of the Watch, Command-
ant's Orderly and Radio Station know where he can
be found during the day by telephone.

7. He will be present when mast is held at 11 a.m.

8. He will be present at the 12:50 p.m. and 7:50
a.m. musters, will receive reports and publish orders.
All absentees will be reported to the Captain of the
Yard.

9. He shall be responsible for the keeping of the
flying school log and making the proper entries therein.

10. At 4 :30 p.m. he shall make an inspection of the
different sentry posts and see that sentries are posted
and understand their orders. At 4 p.m. he will re-
port to the Captain of the Yard for orders.

11. He shall see that boats are secured after flying
orders.

12. He shall make frequent inspections of the shops
during the day and see that no unauthorized persons
enter the shops.

13. He shall make arrangements with the C. M. A.
A. about inspection of provisions.

14. He will inspect the crew's mess hall before at
least one meal a day.

15. He may proceed with his regular duties at the
station but must not leave the yard without permission
of Captain of the Yard or without a relief.

16. He will make two or more inspections of the
yard and sentries during the night, one of which shall
be between midnight and 4 a. m.

17. He may get relieved by any other commis-
sioned officer of the station.

18. He must be familiar with the yard regulations,
particularly as to fire.

19. Night quarters will be provided for those offi-
cers of the day not living in the yard.

20. A desk will be provided for the convenience of
the officer of the day in the Captain of the Yard's
office.

21. He will not alter or change in any way the or-
ders of instructions of the Marine Sentries.

1. The officer in charge of the Flying School will
submit a list of aeroplanes available for use of naval
aviators daily to the commandant. These aeroplanes
may be used at any time by naval aviators during fly-
ing hours, 8 p.m. to 11 :45 p.m. and 1 to 4 p.m. Na-
val aviators will apply to the senior instructor present
at the Flying School, who will inform him what aero-
planes are available and ready for use.

2. The course of instruction and required qualifica-
tions of personnel for the air service of the navy will
be such as is specified in the circular letter issued
semi-annually by the Navy Department.

3. In the future the speed boats will be used only
for the purpose for which they were bought, i.e.,
for necessarv rescue work. At the direction of the
boat officer they may be used in cases of emergencies
to prevent aeroplanes drifting ashore or to prevent a
collision. Flying at the station will be suspended
whenever it happens that there is not at least one
speed boat in first class condition equipped for rescue
work. During flying hours a hospital apprentice with
first aid kit will be continuously on duty at speed
boat wharf for an immediate call to go out in the speed
boat on duty for the day or to go to any hangar or
shop.

CHAPTER XI

SAFETY ORDERS AND REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO THE FLYING
SCHOOL AT UNITED STATES NAVAL AERONAUTIC STATION

4. The following revised safety orders for pilots
and assistant pilots will be complied with; all flight
officers will report in writing to the commandant that
they have read and understand these orders.

Pbocedube Before Flight

(1) Obtain a flight order card signed by the proper
authority, and be certain of the exact meaning of the
orders thereon.

(2) Vote direction of wind and character of gusts ;
if any previous flights have been made during the day,
ascertain if there are any unusual atmospheric condi-
tions. The course to be used will be indicated by flag
signals displayed on the observation tower {or near
the Flying School beach) a blue flag indicates "North-
erly Course," a red flag "Southerly Course." In us-
ing the northerly course the circuit of Pensacola Bay
is made, making right hand turns ; southerly course,
vice versa.

(3) Note the number of aeroplanes out with spe-
cial reference to the Rules of Road, Air, and Beach.
Ascertain the course being used.

(4) See that radiator is filled, that oil level is cor-
rect, and that ample amounts of oil and gasoline are
on board ; test oil feed and see that gasoline pump is
working.

(5) Inspect thoroughly and test all controls and

their leads, and see that they are "hooked up" prop-
erly. This is most important.

(6) Receive report from chief mechanician that
aeroplane has been inspected in accordance with the
prescribed inspection routine and that it is in good
condition and is in all respects ready for flight.

(7) See that no loose tools or other articles have
been left in or on any part of the aeroplane.

(8) See that motor is warmed up, running prop-
erly, and that carburetor adjustments are correct.

(9) See that throttle connections are in good order
and that the adjustment is correct for the released
position.

(10) Put on and secure the prescribed safety jacket
and helmet.

(11) Sec that the assistant pilot, student or passen-
ger has his safety jacket and helmet on properly,

(12) Examine safety straps, see that they are in
good condition and that the releasing device is in good
order; adjust straps and put them on.

(13) See that the assistant pilot, student or pas-
senger is properly secured in his seat.

(14) If carrying a passenger, caution him as to in-
terfering with the controls and the foot throttle, and
as to remaining secure in his seat.

(15) Do not start from runway until chief mechan-
ician has signalled "All Clear."

The Curtiss seaplane in which Captain Francis T. Evans, U. S. Marine Corps, loo ped-the- loop o:
Lieut. Edward O. McDonald, U. S. X., duplicated the feat the following day. In the photograph i
State Militia detailed for instruction at Pensacola.

SAFETY ORDERS AND REGULATIONS

79

(16) The pilot shall inform the assistant pilot of
the purpose of the flight.

(17) Make sure that pontoons contain no water
and that plugs and hand hole plates are secured.

(18) On aeroplanes equipped with Christenson self
starters :

(a) See that valve from air flash to distributor

is open.

(b) See that air gauge registers the required

amount.

(c) See that starting lever is at the neutral point

before starting on flight.

(19) See that air pressure on the fire extinguisher
line is up to the required amount.

(20) See that the valve to fire extinguisher air
charging line is closed, that the main stop valve is
open, and that the supply valve is working freely.

(21) See that gasoline cut-off valve is working
freely.

(22) See that shorting button functions properly.

(28) Before starting a scouting flight obtain a com-
pass error card for your compass ; see all instruments
in proper working order, properly calibrated and set.
Barograph reading "zero" ; inspect signalling appar-
atus and see that it is in perfect working order. See
armaments in proper shape and ammunition secured;
bomb-dropping device properly adjusted and equipped.

Procedure During Flight

(1) All pilots shall familiarize themselves with the
prescribed Rules of the Road, Air and Beach.

(2) Upon taking the air, if motor does not develop
its proper reserve power, or if there is anything un-
usual in the action of the aeroplane, land at once. In-
vestigate and correct it, returning to the runway if
necessary.

(3) In horizontal flight use only enough power and
no less than is required for the normal angle of inci-
dence, except when under orders to make a high or low
speed test.

(4) If motor develops any unusual sound while on
the water, return to the runway at once and investi-
gate; if sound becomes more pronounced while pro-
ceeding to the runway, cut off motor and signal for a
tow.

(5) If motor develops any unusual sound while in
the air, throttle down and come into a glide ; if sound
becomes more pronounced, cut off ; after landing pro-
ceed as prescribed in preceding paragraph.

(6) In flight, when motor misses or dies, come into a
glide instantly.

(7) In all glides use approximately the safe angle
of incidence prescribed for the type of aeroplane con-
cerned ; alwavs hold this angle until time to flatten out
for landing. "

(8) At all times, either on the water or in the air,
note as much and as continuously as possible the be-
havior of the structure of the aeroplane; in event of
dectecting any break, looseness, or defect of any part,
or any irregularity of action, return to runway at
once and correct.

(9) In the event of fire, turn off pet cocks in gaso-

ROUTINE FLIGHT REPORT.

Began: hrs.

rlmil.,

Ended: hrs„ min*

Elapsed time: lira, min.

Motor stopped: hrs., ..., min.

1 Operating Time: hrs* min.

M. Pilot's weight: lbs.

M. Ass't Pilot's weight: lbs.

At. weight fuel: lbs.

At. weight oil: lbs.

Extras: lbs.

2 Load: lbs.

6 Weather:

5 Wind Direction: Ay. velocity: M.P.E

5 Gusts:

7 Sea:

8 Altitude: Mail: ft.; Avj ft

Remarks:

(Began: gals.

(Ended: gals.

3 FUEL

(Expended: gals.

(At. carried: gals.

(Began: qts.

(Ended: qts.

4 OIL

(Expended: qts.

(Ay. carried: qts.

(Sig.) U. S. Pilot

In the office, a continuous record of each student's flying is filed. The facsimile of the flight report card is shown herewith.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

at Dunkirk just ubout to b.;
launched.

line lino as soon as possible and open cock on extin-
guisher line — laud.

(10) Except when orders on the flight card direct
otherwise, all flights will be restricted to the limits pre-
scribed in Beach and Air Rules.

(11) Courses over land or over shallow water must
not be made unless an altitude has been attained that
will give an ample margin for gliding to deep water
in event of failure of the motor.

(12) Except in an emergency, glides will not be
started in a direction towards land, or from an alti-
tude less than 500 feet.

(18) In event of landing, the following signals shall
be made by either occupant of the aeroplane facing the
lookout station and standing in a position unmasked
by the motor;

(a) Signal: Waving one arm from vertical to

horizontal position — meaning: "Cannot
return under power; require tow."

(b) Signal: Waving both arms from vertical to

horizontal position — meaning: "Emer-
gency : send boat as quickly as possible."

The above signals will be repeated at intervals until
a boat is seen approaching.

(14) The general recall is a large rectangular can-
vas flag, checkerboard red and white, rolled down on
south end of machine shop roof; when this is shown,
all aeroplanes out, whether on the water or in the air,
will at once return to their runways.

(15) After turning over the controls to the assist-
ant pilot or to a student, direct him as to course and
altitudes and be prepared to resume control instantly-
When carrying a student, conform at all times to the
prescribed system of flying instruction.

(16) When making a glide from high altitudes, cut
in the power momentarily at intervals in the approved
manner for the type motor used, to prevent its chok-
ing up with oil and to provide that power will continue
available; in event of feeling indisposed by the change
in barometric pressure, cut in power and hold the
altitude for a few minutes then resume the glide.

(17) Side slip spirals are prohibited.

(18) In gusty weather or in doubtful air condi-
tions, when possible, land under power.

(19) Execute no turning manceuvcr before reach-

A French seaplane of the flyinp
txiat type preparatory Ui its flijrbt.

See chapter on "Submarine
Hunting from Aircraft" for report
of Admiral Lnraisr. the French
Minister of Marine, regnrtliiij; the
extensive employment of seaplanes
for coast patrol work.

SAFETY ORDERS AND REGULATIONS

81

ing an altitude of at least 300 feet, except where local
conditions make turning safer than continuing a
straight climbing path. The spirit of this order is
that the pilot shall endeavor to make a straight flight
into the wind to an altitude of at least 300 feet before
commencing a turn.

(20) Do not attempt any unusual performance un-
less proper authority has been obtained.

(21) Under all circumstances in the air avoid atti-
tudes that either in climbing, horizontal flight, are on
the verge of stalling.

(22) Returning from flight approach the runway
at slow speed ; be ready to cut out the spark. Remem-
ber that the lives of the men waiting to handle your
machine may depend on your presence of mind.

Procedure After Flight

(1) Fill out the back of flight order card and send
it to the office it was issued from ; if flight order requires
a flight report make it out at once and send it to the
commandant's office.

(2) If any part of the aeroplane or its equipment
has developed defects or irregularities of operation fill
out data required on a trouble report blank, giving
the details of the trouble, and turn in to the officer
in charge of your aeroplane division.

(3) If the aeroplane is ordered out with a different
pilot, inform him of any peculiarities of its handling,
and of any irregularities that he may meet in the local
atmospheric conditions.

(4) If the aeroplane is ordered into its hangar, the
officer to whom it is assigned, unless absent with proper
authority, will see that the crew cleans and secures
properly.

(6) When any overhauling, repairs, alterations,
renewals, or adjustments are to be made in any part of
an aeroplane or its flying equipment, the officer to
whom it is assigned shall personally inspect the pro-
gress of the work ; at its completion he shall fill out the
work report (N. O. A. No. 4).

Procedure in General

(1) The pilot's responsibility and authority, irre-
spective of his rank relative to the assistant pilot, stu-
dent, or passenger, begins when the aeroplane is being
inspected in preparation for the flight, and does not
end until the aeroplane is in its hangar, or is formally
turned over on its runway to another pilot or to the
officer to whom it is assigned.

(2) Any pilot that has any reason to believe that his
physical or mental condition, on account of fatigue or
any other reason, is not entirely up to its usual stand-
ard, before undertaking a flight must report the fact
to the officer signing the flight card.

(8) Student naval aviators flying alone will not in
any given week fly at 500 feet higher than the highest
attained by them in the previous week.

(4) Student naval aviators who have already at-
tained to altitude of 3000 feet may fly at this altitude
if they so desire, but will not increase it from week to
week by steps greater than 500 feet.

(5) Student naval aviators are strictly enjoined
from attempting to make rapid climb until they are so
authorized — this to prevent danger of stalling.

(6) No student naval aviators, except those who
have qualified under the supervision of the officer in
charge of the Flying School, will attempt to make
whole or partial spirals unless forced to do so.

(7) In addition to contents of previous orders, stu-
dent naval aviators will in the future, until further or-
ders, be restricted in their flying as follows :

(a) Flights shall be limited as prescribed by officer
in charge of Flying School.

(b) A ratio of climb of 200 feet per minute shall not
be exceeded for the first 1000 feet ; in other words that
altitude, 1000 feet, shall not be attained in less than
5 minutes. A noticeably steep angle of climb shall
never be used.

Competition and the spirit of rivalry among stu-
dents is discouraged. Careful and conservative flying
is desired. Accidents are either caused from care-
lessness, recklessness, lack of information, pride on the
part of the aviator, and, to a far less degree, by me-
chanical defects in the construction of the aero-
plane.

Safety Orders for Mechanicians — Procedure

Before Flight

(1) The chief mechanician will make a careful in-
spection, in the approved manner, of all accessible
parts of the aeroplane's power plant, controls with
their leads, and instruments and equipment; also note
quantities of oil, fuel, and circulating water on board,
and shall see that pontoons are free from water and
that drain plugs and hand hole plates are properly
secured;

(2) The second mechanician shall make a careful in-»
spection, in the approved manner, of all accessible
parts of the aeroplane's structure.

(3) Any unusual condition noted in the above in-
spection shall be referred to the pilot about to make
the flight, no matter how unimportant that condition
may seem.

(4) Special care shall be taken that all loose tools
or other loose articles are removed from all parts of
the aeroplane before motor is started.

(5) When inspections are completed and all is found
satisfactory, the chief mechanician shall report
"Ready" to the pilot about to make the flight, notify-
ing him as to quantities of fuel, oil, and water on board,
condition of starter, fire extinguisher and other equip-
ment.

(6) After the motor has been started and all men
of the crew are stationed as directed by the chief mech-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

anician, he shall hold up his right hand as a signal to
the pilot "All Clear."

(7) No person shall be permitted under any cir-
cumstances to pass under the lower plane or to stand in
line of the propeller blades after the motor has been
started or while there is a possibility of its being
started.

(8) Before aeroplane leaves runway note if pilot
and passenger have adjusted their safety straps, and
if either one has not done so invite his attention to
the fact.

Froceduhe Dubing Flight

(1) The chief mechanician shall detail one of his
crew to the watch tower to keep his aeroplane in sight
until it is on the water returning to the runway, in
case there is no regular tower watch.

(2) The other members of the crew shall remain in
the vicinity of the hangar ready to receive their aero-
plane upon its return to the runway.

(3) In aeroplanes that are capable of carrying a
passenger, the chief mechanician shall be taken on the
first flight each day for observation of its behavior in
the air, with special reference to the power plant oper-
ation. The other members of the crew shall be given
flights as often as convenient.

Procedure Aftee Flight

(1) Upon return of the aeroplane to the runway,
the inspections specified in paragraphs 1 and 2 of
procedure befobe flight shall be repeated. In addi-
tion, the pontoon shall be carefully examined for in-
dications of leaks or damages that may result in leaks.

(2) Fuel, oil, and water shall be replenished as re-
quired.

(S) Minor repairs and readjustments as directed
by the officer assigned to the aeroplane shall be made
and recorded.

(4) See that the valve stems, push rods and con-
trols are well lubricated, especially after a long flight.

(5) Upon completion of the aeroplane's last flight

-, being used by Belgians in the campaign in East Africa on the shore of
Lake Tanganv Ika.

for the day, in addition to the above, the aeroplane
shall be carefully cleaned and dried down ; oil, grease,
and finger marks removed from fabric and varnished
woodwork with soap and fresh water or with the ap-
proved cleaning compound- — care being taken to wash
off all soap ; treat bare metal parts with oil or vaseline
as specified, being careful not to get any of it on the
fabric or other parts where not required. Put on
motor cover and see that vents in oil and fuel system
are closed ; open hand hole plates and allow interior of
pontoon to dry.

(6) After each 5 hours' flight drain the oil out of
the crank case and give the motor the kerosene treat-
ment as specified for its type; put in fresh supply of
oil.

Morning Routine

(1) Dust off all parts of aeroplane thoroughly be-
fore removing motor cover and vent covers.

(2) Check up valve timing and interrupter gap, re-
adjusting to specified clearance if necessary.

(3) Check up propeller lock nut adjustment and
readjust if necessary,

(4) Make a careful examination for indications of
leaks over night in fuel, oil, and water service.

(5) Make careful examination for development of
rust on wires and fittings ; where this is found the rust
shall be scraped off to bare metal and a coating of
vaseline applied.

(6) Supply aeroplane with fuel, oil, and water as
required.

(7) Carry out the provisions of paragraphs 1, % 3,
and 4 of pbocedure before flight. In addition,
the chief mechanician shall repeat the inspection of
the second mechanician.

(8) Oil valve stems, push rods, and controls.

(9) See all clear for turning over motor; start mo-
tor and allow it to idle for at least five minutes and
until cylinders are warmed up, then very gradually
increase to full speed ; note operation of motor, read-
justing carburetor to specified adjustment if neces-
sary ; when motor runs properly at all speeds, report

to the officer to whom the aeroplane
is assigned that it is ready for serv-

G ever at. Rules
(1) Attention of all mechanicians
is called to the fact that their duties
in connection with aeroplanes and
power plants is fully as important as
regards efficiency and safety in flight
as the duties of the pilot. Inspec-
tions before and after flight shall
always be made in accordance with
the prescribed Inspection Routine for
the types of power plant and aero-
plane concerned.

SAFETY ORDERS AND REGULATIONS

83

(2) Chief mechanicians shall see that the rule is
strictly enforced that no members of the crew shall
engage in any occupation or conversation not directly
connected with the work on the aeroplane during the
inspections before and after flight and during morn-
ing routine.

(3) No mechanician shall smoke while engaged in
work on an aeroplane.

(4) Gasoline shall be stowed only in the authorized
receptacles and in specified localities ; these receptacles
shall be kept closed tight when not in use.

(5) Smoking inside hangars is prohibited.

(G) No blow torch shall be used during the filling of
the gasoline tanks or when gasoline receptacles or vents
are open or where there is any possibility of flame
from the torch causing a gasoline or oil fire.

(7) None other than the specified adjustments of
any part of the aeroplane or the power plant shall be
made unless authorized by proper authority; all
changes of adjustments will be recorded in the work
report (N. O. A. No. 4).

(8) Mechanicians shall not make any private col-
lection of tools or spare parts for use in effecting re-
pairs. Only such wire, bolts, nuts, cotter pins and
other material that is issued from stock shall be used
for replacements in any part of the aeroplane or power
plant. Cotter pins or safety wires shall never be used
more than once.

(9) Mechanicians will not touch any part of an
aeroplane or its equipment to which they are not as-
signed without the consent of the chief mechanician in
charge of it.

(10) Visitors to hangars will not be permitted to
handle any part of an aeroplane or any of the appar-
atus in the hangar.

(11) All mechanicians shall aid in enforcing the
Station Regulations relative to admission of visitors in
hangars and shops, and shall require all strangers or
unauthorized persons to show the standard pass signed
by the commandant or the Captain of the Yard before
allowing admission to hangars, shops, Flying School
beach and offices.

Regulations for Flying School and Reports to

Be Made

Name

Record of flights
of Individuals.

Flight Card.

Hangar Aero-
plane Log.

Information
Contained
Date, No. of flight,
aeroplane, length,
height, glide, wind,
temperature, gusts,
nature.

Same as above, also
orders, water, fuel,
weights carried.
Record of each
flight and total
hours ; record of
work on aeroplane.
Hangar Motor Log.

Disposition

1 — Officers personal
record.

1— Station files, Fly-
ing School.
1— Central Office.
1 — Flying School.

Kept in hangar in
rough.

Name

Hangar Motor
Log.

Aeroplane Log.

Motor Log.

Aeroplane Work
Report.

Motor Work
Report.

Trouble Report.

Semi-Monthly
Report of Fly-
ing.

Weekly Report
of Flying School
Operations.

Daily Report of
Aeroplanes.

Gas and Oil
Report.

Weeklv
Requisitions.

Monthly Inven-
tory of Tools.

Information
Contained

Record of each mo-
tor run, oil, gas,
total time and over-
haul work.
Record of each
flight, aeroplane No.,
motor No., flight
No., date, duration
of flight, weather
and air conditions,
initial of pilot, na-
ture of flight.
Same as Aeroplane
Log.

Page, nature of
work, weekly, aero-
plane No., item No.
dates, name of part,
description of work,
reason, authority, in-
spector's initials.
Same as Aeroplane
Work Report, except
Motor Number.
File No., flight No.,
aeroplane or motor
No., part, name and
location, record of
trouble, Trouble
Board and Recom-
mendations.

Names of officers
and men, number of
aeroplanes, time in
air since last report,
total time to date,
letter, telling aero-
pi a n e s available,
flights made, hours
of flight, remarks.
Aeroplanes available
for use ; aeroplanes
available for use
naval aviators.
Gas and oil served
out by gas house
each day — Installed
by officer in charge
gas and oil.
Supplies required by
aeroplanes for up-
keep and repair.
Tools on hand and
tools lost or worn
out during month
for each aeroplane.

Disposition

Kept in hangar in
rough.

1— Central Office,
1 — Aeroplane Log,
Flying School.
1 — Motor Log, Fly-
ing School.
1— Operations.

1 — Motor Log, Fly-
ing School, as above.
1 — Aeroplane Work
Report Book, Fly-
ing School.
1— Central Office.

1— Motor Work Re-
port Book, Flying
School.

1— Central Office.
1 — Aeroplane Trou-
ble Report Book,
or Motor Trouble
Report Book, Fly-
ing School.
1 — B u r e a u con-
cerned.

1— Central Office.
1 — Operations.
1— C. O. North Car-
olina.

1 — Bureau of Nav.
1— Central Office.
1— Flying School
files.

1 — Commandant.
1— Fly ing School
flies.

1— -Commandant.
I— Flying School
files.

1 — Planning Divi-
sion.

1— Flying School
files.

1 — Planning Divi-
sion.

1 — Planning Divi-
sion.

1— Flying School
files.

Reports are to be made as follows :

Aeroplane Work Reports, by officer in charge of
aeroplane, and turned in on Monday a. m. They will
be typewritten and put on file in Flying School for
signature.

Aeroplane Log Sheets, by officer in charge of aero-
plane, and turned in as soon as page is finished — 9
flights.

84

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Individual Flight Reports will be filled in after each
flight. When page is full — 17 flights — turn page over
to Flying School yeoman who will typewrite copies for
signature and filing.

Trouble Reports, by officer in charge of aeroplane,
as soon as aeroplane reaches beach and brought to
senior officer of Trouble Board on beach for filling in
"Cause and recommendations. "

Student naval aviators on reporting to Flying
School will read over all Station Orders, which are to
be found on file in office, paying special attention to
orders regarding flying, Rules of Air and Beach, safety

orders and inspections. Also students will obtain from
office an individual flight record book and start same.

When assigned to duty in charge of an aeroplane,
an officer will assure himself that the aeroplane's rec-
ords are up to date, and that tool inventory is correct
and show a full allowance. He will familiarize him-
self with the type of aeroplane, its routine operation
and maintenance, all orders relative to daily inspec-
tions and inspections before and after flight. He will
see that hangar records of work on aeroplane and mo-
tor, of flights and of gasoline and oil used are care-
fully kept bj r the chief mechanician.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER XII

RULES FOR FLYING ISSUED BY BRITISH ROYAL FLYING CORPS

1. Aircraft Meeting Each Other. — Two air-
craft meeting each other end on, and thereby
running the risk of a collision, must always
steer to the right. They must, in addition to
this, pass at a distance of at least 100 yards.

2. Aircraft Overtaking Each Other. — Any
aircraft overtaking another aircraft is responsi-
ble for keeping clear and must not approach
within 100 yards on the right or 350 yards on
the left of the overtaken aircraft, and must not
pass directly underneath or over, save when the
vertical distance is in excess of 800 feet. No
aircraft shall remain persistently below or above
another. In no case must the overtaking air-
craft turn in across the bows of the other air-
craft after passing it or move so as to foul it
in any way.

8. Aircraft Approaching Each Other in a
Cross Direction. — When any aircraft are ap-
proaching one another in cross directions, then
the aircraft that sees another aircraft on its
right-hand forward quadrant — from degrees
(i.e., straight ahead) to 90 degrees on the right-
hand constitutes the right-hand forward quad-
rant — must give way, and the other aircraft
must keep on its course at the same level till
both are well clear.

4. Distance to be Maintained from Airships.
— When one of the aircraft is an airship, the dis-
tance of 100 yards prescribed above shall be in-
creased to 600 vards.

5. Long Glides and Quick Rises. — Except
when prearranged for instructional purposes or
in cases of emergency, long glides and quick
rises will be practised only to and from the usual
landing area.

6. Position of Other Aircraft to be Noted
Before Starting. — Aeroplane pilots will, when
starting, carefully note the position of other air-
craft and will be responsible for keeping clear
of them.

7. Danger Flag to be Hoisted Before A ero-
plane Flying Commences. — No aeroplane fly-
ing will take place without a red flag being

hoisted at the appointed place as a warning to
all concerned. In cases where the flag is likely
to be mistaken for other danger flags, the flag
of the Royal Flying Corps will be hoisted im-
mediately below the red flag.

When the flag is flying, no unauthorized per-
sons are to be allowed in the prohibited area.

8. Officer Responsible for Regtdation of
Aeroplane Flying. — The senior officer belong-
ing to an aeroplane squadron of the Royal Fly-
ing Corps (Military Wing) present on duty in
the landing area will be responsible for the con-
trol of the flying of all aeroplanes using an
aerodrome or landing area reserved for War
Department use (except aeroplanes flying at
Farnborough under the control of the Super-
intendent of the Royal Aircraft Factory), and
persons on duty in connection with such flying.

9. "Stop" Signal.— The "stop" flag (Inter-
national Code flag "S," i.e., a square white flag
with a blue square in the center) will be the sig-
nal for all aeroplanes in the air to return to
the landing area ; it will be hoisted when neces-
sary by the order of the officer referred to in
paragraph 8. This officer may also suspend
any one from flying pending enquiry.

10. Rolling Practice. — Rolling practice will
not take place on the landing area whilst aero-
planes are flying.

11. Beginners Practice Area. — Beginners
will be restricted to such area as may be pre-
scribed by the officer referred to in paragraph 8.

12. Landing Marks. — Permanent marks will
be made on the ground at the usual landing
place to indicate the nearest points at which it
is safe for aeroplanes to land in directions fac-
ing the sheds, etc. An aeroplane landing in
such a direction must be on the ground before
it reaches the point in question.

13. Flying over towns. — Flying unneces-
sarily over towns and villages is to be avoided.

14. Dogs. — Xo dog not on a leash is allowed
in the starting and landing area while flying is
in progress.

85

CHAPTER XIII
TRAINING OF AVIATORS

The training of aviators is fast becoming an
exact science. When early in the war aviators
were needed in large numbers and were em-
ployed mainly for scouting, aerial coast patrol
and spotting of shots even the European navies
were willing to forego practically all the quali-
fications apart from flying. Later, as the du-
ties of aviators increased rapidly, and the short-
age of trained men made it necessary to "break
in" civilians, their training had to be carried
out on scientific lines.

Whenever the personnel available is un-
trained in naval matters, it is necessary to teach
the students the rudiments of naval discipline
and naval regulations as well as aeronautics.
Great Britain has been obliged to do so to ob-
tain military aviators, and the British system,
which has been adopted by her Allies and Can-
ada, is undoubtedly the best system to follow

to-dav.

General W. S. Brancker, R.A., Director of
British Air Organization, has given a clear
idea of the extent to which civilians are con-
sidered suitable for service at the front. He
says in part:

"The civilian who wishes to join the Army or
Navy Air Service in Great Britain or Canada
at present has first to join the Service as a ca-
det and go through a course in the cadets'
school, at which military subjects as well as
aeronautic subjects are taught. He gets a
grounding in drill and discipline, care of arms,
interior economy, military law, and the use of
the machine gun; this course lasts about two
months. From this the cadet is sent to a Fly-
ing Corps Training School, School of Military
Aeronautics, where he begins his technical
training on the ground. In Canada, and in
some cases in England, he gets the first men-
tioned military training at the same time as he
gets the rudimentary training in flying or
operation of dirigibles and observation bal-

88

loons. He goes through a course in the care
of engines and rigging, is given some ideas of
the theory of flight, and is taught wireless sig-
naling and receiving.

"He gets instruction in the care of machine
guns, in the use of the camera, in map reading,
in the observation of artillery wire with models,
and in his spare moments he gets a certain
amount of drill. This course lasts another two
months, and if he gets through this success-
fully, he is given a commission on the General
List. He then joins a preliminary training
squadron as a pupil and starts his instruction
usually on the slow Maurice Farman aero-
plane, his training both in military and technical
subjects going on concurrently. After reach-
ing a certain standard of efficiency and having
completed a certain number of hours in the air,
he is sent on to an advanced training squadron
or service squadron, where he learns to fly
Service types of machines for military pur-
poses, and eventually qualifies for his wings.
He is then gazetted as a flying officer of the
Royal Flying Corps and posted to a service
squadron. If he shows exceptional promise as
a pilot after his qualification, he is sent to the
Central Flying School, where he is given extra
higher instruction on flying scouts. During
the period of advanced training, he goes
through a course of aerial gunnery away from
his squadron. The total time in the air usually
required to reach the qualification stage is about
thirty hours' solo in present circumstances, but,
of course, the length of time that it takes to
reach this standard depends entirely on the
weather and the number of aeroplanes avail-
able. During the winter it works out to about
four months, but in the summer it is consider-
ablv shorter."

All this may seem a long process, but it is
doubtless the best and will prove the shortest in
the end in producing well-trained aviators.

CHAPTER XIV

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION AND REQUIRED QUALIFICATIONS OF PERSON.
NEL FOR THE AIR SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY

1. In accordance with the department's order of
April 10, 1913, the following instructions for the train-
ing of officers and enlisted men for the Air Service are
issued :

(a) Classes of officers and men to be trained for
the Air Service will be detailed every three months be-
ginning January 1, 1916.

(6) The course of instruction will not exceed 2
years for officers and 18 months for enlisted men.

(c) Only officers and men who hold certificates of
qualification as herein prescribed or have heretofore
qualified will be eligible to detail for duty in aircraft
in actual service.

(d) The classes of officers will be composed of
eight line officers. The officers must have served at
least two years in seagoing ships.

(e) An officer desiring instruction in aeronautics
must make official application and pass the physical
examination prescribed by the Bureau of Medicine and
Surgery. The senior officer present will at once have
applicants examined physically and forward the re-
port of such examination with application.

(f ) The classes of enlisted men will be composed of:

Eight chief petty officers, seaman branch.

Two chief petty officers, preferably machinist's
mates.

Two petty officers, first class, preferably car-
penter's mates.

Two petty officers, second class, preferably elec-
trician's or gunner's mates.

Two seamen.

(g) Enlisted men, to be eligible for this duty, must
have had at least two years' service in a seagoing ship,
must be under forty years of age, and must be recom-
mended by their commanding officers on account of
their very good record.

(ft) The eight chief petty officers of the seaman
branch will be trained to steer aircraft and will be re-
quired to pass the same physical examination required
of officers detailed to aeronautic dutv. The remain-
der of each class will be trained in handling aircraft
machinery.

(i) The commander in chief, Atlantic Fleet, will
select these classes of enlisted men, and all requests for
this detail should be made to him.

(j) A senior officer present may act immediately

87

upon requests for instruction in aeronautics if away
from an Atlantic home port and facilities exist for car-
rying on the instructions under his command.

(k) Each officer or man regularly ordered to duty
involving actual flying in aircraft will be given orders
by the commanding officer of his ship or station when
he takes up that duty, appointing him as a student or
qualified aviator or as a student or qualified airman
involving actual flying in aircraft in accordance with
act of Congress passed March 3, 1915. These orders
will be forwarded to the department for approval be-
fore extra compensation is paid.

(1) Officers detailed for aeronautic duty will be
classed as, viz.:

Student naval aviators.
Naval aviators.
Navy air pilots, aeroplane.
Navy air pilots, dirigible.
Military aviator.

(m) Enlisted men detailed for aeronautic duty will
be classed as, viz:

Student airmen.
Airmen.

Quartermasters, aeroplane.
Quartermasters, dirigible.
Machinists, aeronautic.

These classifications designate the duty that en-
listed men are qualified to perform in aircraft and do
not affect their regular ratings in the service.

(n) This circular will be revised each six months.
For this purpose the commandant of the United States
Navy Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, will convene a
board of naval aviators on the 1st of June and 1st of
December to recommend the necessary corrections and
revision for publication of this circular on the 1st of
July and 1st of January, respectively. Thus the re-
quirements should be established every six months to
keep up with progress, and also anticipate the most
probable progress of the near future, so that the re-
quirements will be possible of accomplishment by those
officers and men detailed for training on the date of is-
sue of the circular.

2. -Course of Instruction of Student Naval

Aviators

(1) Upon reporting at the aeronautic station stu-
dent naval aviators will supply themselves with such

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

textbooks as arc prescribed by the commandant of the
station.

(2) The course of instruction begins in aeroplanes
and will be grouped under the following heads :

(a) Shopwork.
(6) Lectures.

(c) Flying lessons.

(d) Elementary flying.

(e) Advanced flying.

(f) Aircraft station administration.

(g) Examinations.

(3) Aeroplane shopwork will be divided into three
parts: (a) Machinery, (6) Structural, (c) Instru-
ment. They will be required to do the actual work as
far as possible with necessary advice from the instruct-
ors.

(a) Machinery work: Disassembly, reassembly, in-
stallation, and adjustment of all parts of each type of
machinery plant nt the station.

(6) Structural work: Disassembly, reassembly, in-
stallation, and adjustment of each type of aerody-
namic instrument at the station.

(4) Lectures. — The officer in charge of Flying
School will lecture or arrange for lectures once each
week. These lectures will be prepared so as to assist
in the progress of the course of instruction, also to
stimulate original thought and development. Copies
of lectures will be furnished the students.

(5) Flying Lessons. — During their first week at the
station students will be given occasional flights as
passengers for the purpose of giving them an idea of
the "air feel" and for general observation of the han-
dling of an aeroplane. The actual flying lessons will
then begin and progress through the following:

(a) Adjustment of safety jacket and straps.

(6) Inspection of machine required in safety or-
ders.

(c) Handling controls while machine is on the
ground.

(«/) Handling controls in straight horizontal flights.

(e) Handling controls and throttle in straight hor-
izontal flights.

(/) Turning, right and left.

(ff) Figure eights.

(A) Straight glides.

(i) Get-aways.

(j) Landings, with and without power.

(it) Spirals.

(I) Rough-weather flying.

(wi) Taking care of all casualties or unusual con-
ditions that will be encountered in flight that can be
safely demonstrated by the instructor.

At least once each week during the first month the
student is flying, and thereafter once each month, he
shall be examined physically immediately after a flight
by the medical officer of the station, who will keep a

9<3 f 9

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L

\n

25

Wire C

nnections between Upper and T.ower

26

Hiirizo

tal Stabilizer or Tail Plane (la

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liiler Forward Int.-rplnne SI
liter Rear Inturplau,: Hrrnt
nir nlnnm).

up ltrn.ii,- Cable* (lift wires}
nv lift).

tip Uraiim Cables.
nc Hra.-ins Cables (incident w
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r!2
S3

Pol, [on
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84

iliar

e or Hodj- (covered with fabric

sir.-

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION

I ^WsfXftfl

careful record of his physical condition, and report to
the commandant if there is any change that is detri-
mental to flying.

When an instructor is satisfied that one of his stu-

progress in elementary flying and as to his practical
and theoretical knowledge as shown by the examina-
tions he will be permitted to go ahead with the ad-
anced flying under the supervision of the oflicer in

dents is far enough advanced in the above items of charge of the Flying School.

training to fly alone, he will notify the officer in charge
of Flying School, who will take one or more flights
with the student ; if he is then satisfied with the stu-
dent's ability and the medical officer reports him
physically fit, he will be permitted to fly alone and go
ahead with elementary flying.

(6) Elementary Flying. — During this period the
student will make only such nianoeuvers and stay in the
air for such periods as arc directed by his "flight or-
ders." The following will be covered in order:

(a) Get-aways, straight courses, turns and land-
ings into the wind ; good weather.

(b) Figure eights and landings with the wind;
good weather.

(c) Spirals ; good weather.

(d) Higher altitude flying; good weather.
<*) Rough weather flying.

(/) Course by compass.
(g) Endurance flights.

During this period, when sufficiently advanced in
the shop course, the student will have an aeroplane as-
signed to him for care, preservation, and keeping its
logs and records. When his instructor and the officer
in charge of the Flying School are satisfied as to his

(7) Advanced Flying.—

(a) Starts from catapult.

(6) Landings in deep-sea waves.

(c) Bomb-dropping practice.

(rf) Flying in formation.

(e) Sending and receiving radio messages i:

the air.

(8) Station Administration. — During the period
the student is carrying on advanced flying work he
will be relieved from charge of an aeroplane and will
go through the following details:

(a) Subinspector of machinery work.
(6) Subinspector of aeroplane work.
(c) Assistant planning superintendent.

While on these details he will familiarize himself
with the following subjects:

(a) Inspection of repairs, alterations, assembly!
and test of machinery.

(b) Inspection of repairs, alterations, assembly,
and test of aeroplanes.

(c) Routing and filing correspondence.

(rf) Planning division's methods of originating
work.

90

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

(e) Preparations of specifications for requisitions.

(/) Preparation of requisitions and purchase of ma-
terial.

(ff) Accounting methods.

(9) Examination!. — Written examinations in the-
oretical and practical aviation will be given once each
month, the questions being prepared by the officer in
charge of the Flying School and approved by the com-
mandant. In theory the questions will be limited to
subjects discussed in the prescribed textbooks and
lectures. The practical questions will be limited to
subjects involving shopwork and practical flying.

Students will be marked monthly as follows :

Subject.

Weight.

Marked by —

(9) Bearing and conduct.
<S) Flying

(4) Practical knowledge.

(5) Written examination.

3 Officer in charge of Flying
School and instructor as-
signed to.

2 Commandant.

2 Officer in charge of Flying
School and instructor as-
signed to.

9 Instructor assigned to.

1 Commandant and officer in
charge of Flying School.

Marks will be given on a scale of 4, anything below
£.5 being unsatisfactory. Any student whose average
is unsatisfactory in any subject at the end of any
month will be reported to the department and may be
recommended for detachment. Monthly marks will
be averaged, and the result will be the official mark for
the student naval aviator's course. After passing the
final written and practical examinations, and after
having had at least 50 hours' flying, students, upon
recommendation of the officer in charge of Flying
School and approval of commandant will take the fly-
ing tests prescribed for qualification as naval avia-
tors.

(10) Flying Tats for Qualification as Naval Avia-
tor. — The tests will be conducted by a board of not
less than two naval aviators, designated by the com-
mandant, and the following will be done, in the order
named :

{a) Climb to an altitude of 6,000 feet, as shown by
a recording barograph, and glide with motor idling to
a normal landing within £00 feet of a mark previously
designated by the board; horizontal flights to be re-

Sl DE

C-COMNICTIMO ROD TO LCVIR
B-ILIVATOH COMTNOL LIVIN
K-lLIVATon CON1KOL Willi

r-AtuneM control wiMi

Q-RVODIK. CONTROL WIMI
H-RUODlR FOOT-RA.lt

Diagram snowing the Deperdusain method for controlling the aeroplane, adapted by the United States Army and Navy.

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION

91

sumed twice during the descent, but not within the last
1,000 feet.

(6) Make a spiral glide with motor cut off
(stopped) from an altitude of 3,000 feet, as shown by
a recording barograph, and make normal landing
within 200 feet of a given mark previously designated.

(c) Make a landing in a seaway where height of
wave is at least 3 feet, without damage to any part of
aeroplane.

(d) Make a straight course and return between two
objects not less than 5 miles apart in a wind of not less
than 80 miles per hour and not more than four points
forward or abaft the beam, in order to demonstrate
ability to maintain a given course.

(e) Demonstrate to the satisfaction of the board
ability to fly in very bad weather.

(f) Start a flight from the catapult after person-
ally making all adjustments.

Upon the completion of these tests the officer will be
designated a naval aviator, and be eligible for further
training in aeronautics to qualify as a Navy air pilot
or as a military aviator by taking a course at the
United States Army Aviation School.

3. coijbse of instrcction of naval a viators foe
Navy Air Pilots (Aeroplane)

(1) Only commissioned line officers who have quali-
fied as aviators will be detailed to this course.

(2) The commandant of the aeronautic station
will recommend for this course of instruction aviators
who have qualified, the recommendation to be based
upon his opinion of their aptness for this course in the
proportion of three-fourths of each class qualified as
aviators.

(3) The course of instruction shall consist of:
{a) Taking sights in aeroplanes.

(6) Working out sights while flying.

(c) Compensating aeroplane compasses.

(d) Installing aeroplane compasses.

(e) Open-sea scouting flights.

(/') Solution of scouting problems.*
(g) Controlling the Are of the guns of an aero-
plane.

(4) Upon the completion of this course the naval
aviator for Navy air pilot (aeroplanes) shall be given

FR ONT

CURT 1 55 CONTROL

A -ELEVATOR & HUDBBR CONTROL WHEEL

E» - PIVOT POM CLEVATON CONTROL

C -EKVATOH CONTROL

D - RWDREN CONTROL. WIRE*

K -SHOULDER YHK-AIUHMI COMTOOl.

W • SHOULOIR V«LK RADIUS ROD*
O - AILERON CONTROL WIRES

Diagram showing the Curtiss method for controlling the aeroplane. Also used by the United States Army and Navy.

92

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

an examination, theoretical and practical, covering all
points of his instruction. This mark added to 4 times
his final mark for naval aviator's course, divided by 5,
will give his grand final mark for determination of air
pilot certificate number.

Upon successful completion of the examination the
naval aviator will be designated Navy air pilot (aero-
plane) and issued a certificate, numbered according to
his standing in the class with which he qualified as
Navy air pilot. Only those line officers who have
qualified as Navy air pilots (aeroplane) are eligible to
command Navy aeroplanes.

The course of instruction for Navy air pilots is at
present simple, because the aeroplanes now available
have not greater capacity. These requirements will
be more comprehensive in the next issue of this circular
as a result of better air-craft equipment and more ex-
perience in the art of aerial navigation.

4. Couse of Instruction of Naval Aviators for

Navy Air Pilots (Dirigible)

(1) Only commissioned line officers who have quali-
fied as naval aviators are eligible for detail to this
course.

(2) The commandant of the aeronautic station will
recommend for this course of instruction aviators who
have qualified, based upon his opinion of their aptness
for the course in the proportion of one-fourth of each
class qualified as aviators.

(8) This course will include instruction in the oper-
ation of free balloons, kite balloons, and dirigibles. A
more detailed course of instruction will be drawn up
when the capabilities of free balloons, kite balloons,
and dirigibles have been more fully investigated and
these air craft are available for use at the station.

(4) Officers must qualify as Navy air pilots (dir-
igible) in order to be eligible for duty in these air
craft in actual service.

5. Course of Instruction for Student Airmen

(1) Upon reporting at the aeronautic station en-
listed men will be assigned for instruction in the crews
of aeroplanes in commission, and will become familiar
with the general characteristics of the aeroplanes,
their care, preservation, and repair. After one month
of duty as members of crews of aeroplanes, the men will
be assigned as members of crews of free balloons or
kite balloons. Upon the completion of one month in
such crews the men will be reassigned among the crews
of dirigibles. Upon the completion of one month's
service as members of dirigible crews the men will be
given shop work, as follows :

AERONAUTIC MACHINERY-ERECTING SHOP COURSE

(a) Work in dismounting motors.

(b) Cleaning up various parts of motors.

(c) Rebabbitting bearings.

(d) Grinding in valves.

(e) Assembling motors.

(/) Setting valves and timing motors.

(g) Instruction in principle and operation of mag-
netos.

(h) Dismounting and assembling of carburetors,

(i) Testing motor on stand.

In all the above student airmen will act as assist-
ants to airmen, air machinists, or } r ard machinists in
their regular work.

Upon the completion of the machinery-erecting shop
course (one month), student airmen will be assigned
to the aeroplane-erecting shop for instruction. Their
instruction will be grouped under the following general
heads :

(a) Assembly and disassembly of the various types
of aeroplanes.

(6) Renewing control, brace, and plane wires.

(c) Lining up planes.

(d) Lining up tail.

(e) Setting balancing flaps.

(/) Application of dope to fabric.

(g) Patching planes.

(h) Installing power plant.

In all the above student airmen will act as assist-
ants to airmen, air quartermasters, or yard shopmen
in their regular work. After one month in the erect-
ing shop, student airmen will be given an examination
covering all points in the course of instruction. Upon
passing this examination, student airmen will be des-
ignated airmen and assigned as regular members of
crews of aeroplanes, free and kite balloons, and diri-
gibles, and selected for special course of instruction as
machinists (aeronautic).

Throughout the course of instruction for student
airmen they will be given as many flights as practicable
in aeroplanes, free and kite balloons, and dirigibles to
accustom them to actual air work.

6. Course of Instruction for Quartermasters

(Aeroplanes)

(1) From among those airmen having had at least
three months' service as such, and whose Navy ratings
are C. P. O. and P. O., first class, of the seaman
branch, shall be selected the requisite number to take
the course of instruction for training as quartermas-
ters (aeroplane).

The flj'ing instruction shall be the same as that
given student naval aviators. During the period of
this instruction airmen for quartermasters (aero-
plane) shall be given lectures and shall be required to
study such books, papers, etc., as are designated by
the officer in charge of Flying School. When the air-
man has completed this instruction he shall be given
an examination embracing all points covered by the
course of instruction.

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION

98

Upon the completion of the course and passing the
required mental examination, and when the airman has
had 50 hours flying, if recommended by the officer in
charge of Flying School and approved by the com-
mandant, he shall take the flying test prescribed for
student naval aviators. If successful the airman is
now given a quartermaster's (aeroplanes) certificate.

7. Course of Instruction for Quartermasters

(Dirigibles)

( 1 ) From among those airmen having had at least
three months' service as such, and whose Navy ratings
are C. P. O. or P. O., first class, of the seaman branch,
shall be selected the required number to take the course
of instruction for training as quartermasters (diri-
gibles).

The course of instruction in operation of free bal-
loons, kite balloons, and dirigibles shall be the same as
that required of naval aviators undergoing instruction
for designation as Navy air pilots (dirigibles), except
that they shall not be required to navigate a dirigible.
The training will be in handling these aircraft and in
steering dirigibles. Upon the completion of this
course the airman shall be given an examination em-
bracing all points of his instruction.

Upon passing the examination, and if recommended
by the officer in charge of the Flying School and ap-
proved by the commandant, the airman shall take the
prescribed test for qualification as quartermaster (dir-
igibles).

This test will be decided upon later when the capa-
bilities of free balloons, kite balloons, and dirigibles
have been fully investigated.

Upon successful completion of test the airman shall
be given a certificate of qualification as quartermaster
(dirigibles).

8. Course of Instruction for Machinists

(Aeronautic)

(1) From among those airmen of the engineering
and artificer branches who have had at least three
months 9 service as airmen shall be chosen as manv men
as are required to take the course of instruction for
machinists (aeronautic). These men shall be assigned
to the machinery erecting shop for a period of one
month. The instruction in this shop shall be under
the following general heads :

(a) Explanation of theory of valve and magneto
settings.

(6) Practice in the above.

(c) Overhauling all types magnetos in use at sta-
tion.

(d) Explanation of theory of all types carburetors
in use at station.

(e) Adjustment of all types carburetors on motors
on testing stands.

(/) Take charge of group in the disassembly, over-
haul, reassembly, and adjustment of motors (routine
shopwork).

(2) The airman under instruction for machinist is
now assigned to the machine shop, where he is first in-
structed in the use of, then required to operate for
routine work, the following tools:

(a) Screw-cutting lathe.
(6) Lathe for general work.

(c) Radial drill.

(d) Sensitive drill.

(e) Shaper.

( / ) Grinding machine.
(g) Boring machine.

(3) After the machine-shop course the airman is
next assigned to the copper shop for a period of two
weeks, where he is first instructed, then required to
assist in the making of gasoline tanks, repair of gas
tanks and radiators, putting copper sheathing on pro-
peller blades, balancing propellers, copper sheathing
aeroplane spar and rib joints, engine bed joints, etc.

(4) Following the copper-shop course the airman
is given two weeks in the blacksmith shop, where he is
first instructed, then required to turn out for actual
use aeroplane fittings, steel-tube braces, engine-bed
joint fittings, steel-tube braces, engine-bed joint fit-
tings, etc.

(5) The airman is then passed on to the gas plant
for balloons and dirigibles, where he is first instructed,
then required to take charge of operation of the plant
for the inflation and deflation of balloons and dirigi-
bles.

(6) The airman is next given an examination cover-
ing all points embodied in the course of instruction,
and if he passes is given a machinist's (aeronautic)
certificate.

Note. — If the equipment of the station precludes
the possibility of any part of the foregoing instruc-
tion, such part as is impossible to give shall be omitted
from the course and the airman advanced to machin-
ist regardless of the omission.

Victor Blue,
Chief of Bureau.

Course of Instruction for United States Stu-
dent Naval Airmen

Herewith is given an outline of the course of in-
struction for student airman at the Pensacola, Flor-
ida, station.

Upon reporting to the flying school students are di-
vided into sections, each section spending about twelve
weeks on shop instruction and about a month on the
beach with aeroplanes. When the marks in all shops

94 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

and on the beach are satisfactory, the student is quali- (d) The general design of various fittings used,

fied as an airman. such as wing fittings, strut fittings, pontoon fittings,

The terms of the course are as follows : fuselage fittings, control surface fittings, etc.

The time spent in the various departments is as fol- (e) Which aeroplane used turnbuckles in their wir-

lows : ing and which do not. How may an aeroplane be as-

«,. 01 iii^i.-io sembled if no turnbuckles are used?

Erecting Shop 3 weeks Multiple 3 /j?\ * . i . i *. ^ix-^.

Motor Erecting Shop 3 " " 2 . (f) A ] what * ngle are p0nt00nS Set rdat,Ve to

/-.i_i. o ** m. «• i u i wings, and reason for same.

Carburetors & Magnetos 1 week 1 °

Joiners, Cooper & Fabric Shops . 2 weeks " 1 IV

Balloons l week " l (a) How are propellers balanced?

Han « ars 4 weeks " 2 (b) How are propellers secured to the various

2. Upon becoming qualified airmen the required m °tors.
number of Student Quartermasters will be selected, the ( c ) How are Propellers marked and what record is

rest of the qualified airmen will undergo a course of e P OI znem -
instruction for the rating of machinist (aeronautic). ( d > How are aeroplanes marked?

8. Student Quartermaster will receive instructions V

in flying and will undergo a theoretical course of in- , x m .i i j * ± i ^ . •

.... ,. ° (a) Trace the gas loads from tank to motor in

struction m aeronautics. A , ■../* . i

* r™ *•*.-• * i • • . » the different aeroplanes.

4. lhe course of instruction for machinist's /f v „_ . A , . , , , n , , n . XT

, ,. x .« i it i 1 1 . (b) What method is employed to fight fire m Navy

(aeronautic) will be published later. . ? r J ° J

5. Marks on all shops will be on a scale of 5. A , N ' , . , ... . ,, ,.~

, - ., . , ! i - . . (c) Names and general description of the diner-

mark of three in each and every subiect is necessary . ., -, - . „. , . n - i_.

J * * ent methods ot controlling an aeroplane in flight.

^ * (d) What arrangement is made to control cer-

Aeroplane Erection Shop tain ««*°plane S on the water?

Shop Instructor (Lieut., j.g.). Asst. Shop In- VI
structor (Lieut., j.g.). Assistant Instructors : (petty j n addition to the above general question on con-
officers or civilians). struction and assembly of aircraft, the knowledge of

t the following with reference to experiments and tests

is required: —

(a) Names of all parts of aeroplanes.

(b) Kinds of material used in wings, pontoons, ( a ) Method of testin « material with Tims Olsen
propellers, struts, fuselage, etc. Testing Machine and general description of same.

(c) Instruments carried in the different aeroplanes < b ) Method of testin S material for compression,
and the purpose of each. and description of machine for same.

(d) Approximate overall dimension of the various ( c > Method of ^retching wire, including descrip-
types of aeroplanes. tlon of machme and reason for stretching.

(d) Method of bending wire; description of wire

II bending machine.

(a ) Method of assembling. ( e) Method of finding center of gravity of an aero-

(b) Method of wiring and location of struts. plane.

(c) Method of securing wings to fuselage in differ- Motor Erecting Shop

/j\ * r xi j * • ^ ^1 • t* Shop Instructor (Lieut, j.g.). Asst. Shop Instruc-

(d) Method of securing pontoons to planes in dif- . /x . . . x \ . , . T j. j. / .. «
- ' - .. i tor (Lieut, i.g.j. Assistant Instructors: (petty offi-
ferent types of aeroplanes. v . ... ° ' r J

(e) Method of securing horizontal rudder, vertical '*
rudder, ailerons or wing flaps, vertical fin, and stabil-
izer of various aeroplanes. (a) Lecture on the principles of the internal com-
bustion engine or gasoline motor.

HI . .

1. Definition of a motor.

(a) Factor of safety usually required in aeroplane ^ Explanation of the term cvcle.
construction for the use of the Navy. 3 TwQ and four cyc]c motor ;

(b) Kind and approximate size and strength of

control wires and other wires. ( b ) Practical explanation of motor.

(c) Describe three ways of making a wire terminal 1. Function of different parts,
and tell which way is most efficient. 2. General nomenclature.

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION

95

II

(a) Disassembling of a motor.

1. Steps in disassembling.

2. Detailed nomenclature.

8. Material used in different parts and why?

4. Forms and size of bolts, parts, etc., and reason for

same; locking devices and reasons for same.

5. Notes on any worn, cracked, bent, twisted or found

weakened part and the reason for this condition
and how to correct.

Ill

(a) Overhaul of motors.

1. Cleaning of parts.

2. Tests for alignment, as far as cam-shaft, main

shaft, face plates, and gear balance.
8. Trace oiling and water systems.
4. Thorough examinations of all parts for flaws or

worn places as scorings in cylinders, etc.

IV

(a) Assembling of motor.

1. Spotting in main-^haft.

2. Fitting Cam-shaft.

8. Reaming out wrist-pin bearings.

4. Test main-shaft for balance.

5. Grinding in of valves and testing same.

6. Testing valve springs, exhaust and intake.

7. Fitting thrust block.

8. General assemblage.

(b) Timing of motor and valve setting.

1. Method of adjusting valve clearance and reason

for clearances.

2. Method of timing magneto and reasons for advance.

(c) Final adjustments and connections before go-
ing to test stand.

V

(a) Test stand.

1. Connecting up motor.

2. Securing propeller.

8. Data required for motor tests and the requirements
for an aeronautic motor.

(b) Motor troubles.

1. Causes.

2. Results.

3. Connections.

(c) Care and upkeep.

Carburetors and Magnetos

Shop Instructor (Lieut. j.g.)» Assist. Shop In-
structor (Lieut. j.g.)» Assistant Instructors (petty
officers or civilians).

(a) Carburetors.

1. Theory of the carburetor.

2. Theory of the Zenith carburetor.
8. Jets, chokes and their uses.

4. Carburetion troubles and their remedies.

II

(a) Magnetos.

1. Electrical principles of the magneto.

2. High and low tension magnetos.
8. Dixie principle.

4. Bosch principle.

5. The construction of both magnetos, and the dif-

ference between them.

6. Distributor, its construction and use.

7. Magneto circuit.

8. Spark plugs.

9. Coils.

10. Timing and firing order.

11. Magneto troubles and remedies.

Joiner, Copper and Fabric Shops

Shop Instructor (Lieut, j.g.). Assistant Instruc-
tor.

I

Joiner Shop.

(a) Nomenclature of parts.

(b) Wings, fins, struts and stabilizers.

1. Construction of ribs.

2. Longitudinals.
8. Spars.

(c) Floats.

1. Outside : keel, steps.

2. Inside : bulkheads, frames, supports.
8. Drains.

4. Methods of fastening to aeroplane.

5. Various types.

II.

Copper shop.

(a) Gasoline tanks.

(b) Fittings.

(c) Leads, overflow pipes, exhaust pipes, and

drains.

(d) Patterns and shapes.

(e) Brazing.

III.

Fabric Shop.

(a) Material used in covering.

(b) Method of securing to surfaces.

(c) Doping and varnishing.

96

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Balloons

Shop Instructor (Captain), Asst. Shop Instructor
(Lieut. j.g.)> Assistant Instructors (petty officers and
civilians).

Balloon?

(a) Lecture on free and kite balloons.

(b) Prepare balloon for flight.

1. Lay out to inflate.

2. Inflate when possible.

3. Handling balloon during ascension.

4. Make up as after flight.

5. Repairs to fabric.

6. Cementing on rip panel.

7. Nomenclature of all parts, lines and gear.

8. Two hours or more in hydrogen plant.

Memoranda:

Lawrence B. Sperry and Captain L. A. Dewey, Acting Judge Advocate, Eastern Department, U. S. Army during their flight
from Amltyvllle, Long Island, to Boston, Hm, on September ."W, 191fi, made a flight of over one hour and one quarter in pitch
darkness before they landed at Block Island. The above photograph shows the ruggedncss of the place where they landed at
night. The flight was arranged as a military cx|wrlment and Major Carl V. Hartmann, Signal Corps, was to be the passenger
and to have charge of the experiment, but circumstances prevented his carrying out the plan.

CHAPTER XV
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE TRAINING OF AVIATORS

By Lawrence B. Sperry

Much has been said and written in the last service. An investigation into the present

two years on the training of aviators, and we civilian aviation schools reveals the fact that

of the United States are vitally interested in the men are turned out knowing only the nidi-

the subject, since the recent appropriations ments of flying and without being instructed

have assured the formation of a sizeable air in the finer points that are essential in the mak-

The General Aeroplane Company
flying boat equipped with 100
horse-power Curtiss motor.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

ii

To clear small boats the seaplane pilot must hi

ing of a capable aviator. Unnecessary risks
are taken by pupils in many of the schools,
which could easily be avoided if the proper in-
structions were given.

The following outline of instruction is one
that the writer, who has made a study of the
matter in the principal aerodromes of Europe
since the beginning of the war, considers would
render training in flying not only safe to the
pupil, but calculated to make him an experi-
enced pilot ready for military work.

First Stage. — The preliminary part of the
course may be divided into three parts:

1. The student pilot should take a few trips
as a passenger to accustom himself to air travel
and height, as well as to the ordinary ma-
nceuvers of the machine.

Cornell men huve been learning to fly at the Thomas Aviation
School nt Ithaca. This photograph shows u delightful spot on
I-ake Ithaca where students learn to fly. The machine is a Thomas
Seaplane.

2. He should fly a dual controlled machine
under the guidance of the instructor, in order
to learn the control movements. This machine
should be equipped with some means of inter-
communication so that the pilot may instantly
direct the pupil. He should be taught how to
get off the ground, by running along the
ground until full speed is attained before ele-
vating. This point is important for two rea-
sons:

(a) The aeroplane will get off the ground at
a lower speed than that at which it will retain
buoyancy, because of the "ground bank."
This "ground bank" consists of a blanket of
air, close to the surface of the earth, of greater
density when the machine is passing over it
than that encountered at a hundred feet eleva-
tion. A machine traveling at a speed capable
of sustaining flight a few feet from the ground
will go into a "stall" when it rises out of this
"bank."

(b) If the machine is elevated from the
ground before it obtains full flying speed, the
energy of the motor is expended in lifting the
machine, instead of going into speed as it does
when the machine is allowed to run on the
ground a sufficient length of time. It must be
remembered that the quickest climb for getting
over trees and the like is obtained by allowing
the machine full acceleration on the ground.

8. The pupil should then be taught to main-
tain a straight course, to make proper turns,
and to land properly. This instruction in
landing is most important, and the following
points should be brought out:

(a) The wheels of the landing chassis and
the tail skid should strike the ground simul-
taneously.

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE TRAINING OF AVIATORS

A Martin seaplane
equipped with 125 horse-
power Hall-Scott motor.

(b) There is a speed at which the maximum
lift angle is able only to sustain the plane ; this
is the critical speed at which the controls should
be brought quickly in toward the chest of the
pupil in order to increase the angle beyond the
maximum lift angle, thereby increasing the re-
sistance of the wings and throwing the greater
part of this resistance into drift, which slows
the machine down to a minimum.

(c) Such landing is desirable not only be-
cause of the reduced speed, which is advan-
tageous when one is landing on rough ground,
but also because the tail, on account of being
low, throws the center of gravity far back in
relation to the wheels, thereby reducing the
possibility of the machine nosing over. This
is also very advantageous as a means of pro-
tecting the propeller, especially on tractors
with small propeller clearance.

(d) The pupil should have at least six
hours' training in a dual controlled machine;
this time being divided into lessons of not more
than fifteen minutes' duration.

Second Stage. — The pupil should fly alone
at a large field in a "Penguin," i.e., a machine
the wing spread of which is so reduced that it
is capable of flying not more than five feet
from the ground. This teaches the pupil not
only the art of getting the most results from
small horse-power, which is of great advantage
in case of motor disability in a large machine,
but it also teaches him principally what it
means to get into a "stall" near the ground.

Third Stage.— The pupil should be allowed
to fly alone under ideal air conditions, in a
higher powered machine in a large field at least
one-half mile wide by one mile long, hav-

ing been previously instructed simply to make
"straightaways" up and down the field, turn-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

p.

I

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The 125 horse-power Aeromarine hydroaeroplane, twin pontoons, two passengers.

ing the machine around at each end on the
ground.

Fourth Stage. — The pupil should be in-
structed to climb to an altitude of at least 600
feet, and then to make a very slow turn and
land in the opposite direction. This is watched
by an instructor through a pair of binoculars
to enable him to observe the pupil carefully and
to advise him of his mistakes after his return.

At the same time that the air instructor is
directing the student's field work, the pupil
is learning practical theory, with the aid of a
blackboard, about subjects such as tail spins
and their recovery, spirals, the prevention of
stalling, the making of a landing in a small field
against the wind, without the necessity of
spiraling, by zigzagging back and forth against
the wind, etc. This instruction is incorporated

■

The Sperry lnstructograph to facilitate the Instruction of pupils.

in a complete course of aerodynamics, aero-
plane design, and construction.

The pupil is now ready for spirals, which
should be made at an altitude of not less than
3000 feet and finished at an altitude of not less
than 1000 feet. The pupil should not make
continuous spirals, but should turn first 90 de-
grees to the right and 90 degrees to the left
with the motor shut off; then 180 degrees to the
right and 180 degrees to the left; after that 360
degrees each way, gradually working up to
three spirals to the right and three to the
left, always finishing with an altitude of 1000
feet.

Fifth Stage.— Part of the field, if the field is
large, is marked off one-quarter mile by one-
quarter mile. The pupil is instructed to fly off
the field with the wind in different directions,
and on the sounding of a gun to shut his motor
instantly and to make the field safely without
turning more than 90 degrees. In case he
finds that he is not within gliding distance of
the field, he should be instructed to plug in his
motor again and to continue his flight, rather
than to take any chances in landing.

Sixth Stage. — Landing on a mark is prac-
tised.

Seventh Stage. — Each of the requirements
of. the Junior Military Licenses is practised,
except the cross-country flights, which are with-
held until the course of training is completed.

Eighth Stage.— The pupil flies at 5000 feet
and deliberately "stalls" in the air four times,
each time at a steeper angle than the one before
until a tail slide is made. These stalls are to

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE TRAINING OF AVIATORS 101

be made with the use of an angle of incidence
indicator, the pupil carefully watching the in-
dicator and slowly placing the machine at the
stalling angle.

Ninth Stage.— The pupil is instructed to
"loop" at an altitude of not less than 5000 feet,
after which he should stall the machine, at the
same time throwing his rudder hard over one
way, thus putting his machine into a tail spin,
if the machine is capable' of executing this
manoeuver.

To recover from the tail spin is the salient
point that the pupil is now to learn. This is
effected by throwing his rudder over in the op-
posite direction, which requires a tremendous
pressure on the rudder bar. The writer has
found it necessary to exert the force of both
feet. The pupil is now ready to take his mili-
tary license.

It might be well to remember at this point
that "looping," tail sliding, and such alleged
"stunting" is only carried on with definite ob-
jects in view, namely:

1. To give the pilot confidence.

2. To teach him quick recoveries from un-
safe positions, especially near the ground,
should he find himself in such positions in the

course of carrying out his work as a military
aviator.

Tenth Stage. — After the pupil has secured
his military license, instruction in night flying
should be given. This is both one of the most
difficult feats of military aviation and one of
the most important; a great deal of time and
attention being given to its development by all
of the warring European nations. Night fly-
ing should be taught in four stages, as follows:

1. The pupil should fly as a passenger with
a competent pilot, thoroughly familiar with
night flying.

2. The pupil should fly alone on a moonlight
night, or one in which the stars are bright
enough to give considerable light.

8. The pupil should begin flying before sun-
down on a cloudy day, and should continue
flying until the sun sets, not landing until total
darkness has fallen. No night flying should be
undertaken in a machine not equipped with a
night flying outfit.

4. The pupil should practise night flying,
using his night flying equipment to signal an
aerodrome when he intends landing. In case
of war, the aerodromes are unlighted, except for
a single beam of light, which is thrown verti-

The Sturtevant seaplane equipped with 140 horse-power Sturtevant motor.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Burgess training hydroaeroplane.

cally; machines also are not illuminated, but, on
desiring to land, their pilots flash on their night
flying equipments, signaling by prearranged
code to the aerodrome, whereupon the grounds
are illuminated for landing. The pupil should
be cautioned against inadvertently getting into
fog. There are foggy days when, although it
is not possible to see more than six hundred feet
straight ahead, it is frequently practicable to
fly. These days can be gaged by looking
straight upward at the sky. If the azure blue
can be seen, the fog is limited to a blanket that
does not extend over five or six hundred feet
above the ground. While the pupil is climb-
ing in this fog, he can see nothing but fog sur-
rounding him. When he has climbed just
above the fog, he begins to be able to see around
him. This is due to the fact that it is only pos-
sible for him to see through the blanket of fog
at an obtuse angle, when a large area of the
ground becomes visible from an elevation of
some 2000 feet.

Flying in fog is very similar to night flying,
as it requires a finely developed sense of equili-
brium. In both night flying and flying in fog
it is extremely advantageous to use a machine
equipped with an automatic pilot.

During the latter part of the tenth stage, the
pupil should be allowed to carry an observer as
passenger, so as to familiarize himself with the

various manoeuvers that are necessary in order
that he may obtain such information as he re-
quired. This needs a system of cooperation
and some means of communication between
the pilot and observer.

Coming into a small field against the wind
the pilot pupil should either zigzag or reduce his
altitude to two or three hundred feet, by going
abeam or at right angles to the wind. This
prevents him from getting into the predicament
of going short of his mark.

It should be remembered that in learning to
turn, if the pupil attempts to make his turns
sharp or short at first, no matter how much he
practises he will never learn how to accomplish
a perfect turn. The only way he can expect to
learn to turn satisfactorily is first to make the
turns very big, watching all the time his revo-
lutions, and his air drift indicator, and also his
angle of incidence indicator, if he has one, be-
ing sure all the time to keep his relations at all

The Lawrence-Lewis flying boat A-l In flight.

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE TRAINING OF AVIATORS 103

parts of the turn exactly right. Otherwise if
if he tries to do short turns he will think he is
doing correctly when he is really on the brink
of dangerous positions.

The pupil should be watched at all times

through glasses and made to repeat any faulty
manoeuver until he does it perfectly.

Any tendency toward over-confidence and
carelessness in landing should be followed by a
suspension of three days to one week.

Memoranda:

Photo of a schooner sunk by a Cunard boat off Got

Island, taken by Charles Heed at a height of 600 feet.

CHAPTER XVI
AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER

Br Elmeb A. Spebby

Abstract

The author calls attention to the unreliability of the
magnetic compass when used for aerial navigation and
to the possible development of the gyroscopic compass
for this purpose. He then explains how the drift of
an aeroplane in flight makes it difficult to follow with
accuracy a given course devoid of landmarks, unless
an accurate drift indicator using the principle of the
stroboscope is available.

The development of such an instrument is then de-
scribed, as are also means for synchronizing it with the
compass. The use of the automatic synchronized in-
strument in flight over land is outlined, and its appli-
cation to flight over water is described in considerable
detail. Rules for aerial navigation over water, ob-
servation as to movement of wave crest and determin-
ation of wind velocity and direction arc considered in
their relation to the use of the instrument.

The author, because of the development and
practical application of his gyro-compass, has
been brought to consider, more or less broadly,
the whole science of navigation. For many
decades past, this science has been one of high
exactitude, limited only by the accuracy of the

instruments used in obtaining its ground work
or in giving it its base lines.

It has long been known that the magnetic
compass is unreliable; as ships represent greater
and greater masses of steel, this inaccuracy has
become more and more aggravated. Methods
of checking its accuracy have been diligently
sought for and made as nearly perfect as pos-
sible. These, however, depend upon observa-
tions and fail usually just at the time they are
most needed; namely, when observations of the
heavenly bodies are impossible. All this em-
phasizes strongly the desirability of an instru-
ment of precision that will function as a com-
pass. The adaptation of the gyroscope is
found to fulfil this satisfactorily.

Limitation* of Magnetic Compass

Among the difficulties met in using the mag-
netic compass in the air is that known as the
heeling error. When a magnetic compass is
used on aeroplanes, and the machine is even

AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER

105

mOdly "banked," and persists in such a posi-
tion for an appreciable period, the heeling error
is found to be of such magnitude as to render
the compass useless. In some instances it will
amount to 360 degrees, or around the entire
circle, giving no clue whatever to the aviator
as to the true azimuth, or where to stop on the
turn and straighten out into the tangent.
Thus the compass fails him utterly at just the
critical time when it is most needed. After the
tangent is persisted in for a sufficiently long
time for the compass to settle, then and then
only does it again become useful.

Moreover, the lag or tardiness of action of
the magnetic compass is a serious drawback.
The magnetic compass, to be reliable, we find,
must be of the so-called liquid type; upon
spiralling and making two or three turns the
liquid is found to take up the swivelling mo-
tion, carrying the card with it round and round,
and becoming a serious disturbing factor for
some time after the aeroplane straightens out on
the tangent. This is not meant to imply that
the magnetic compass is not an extremely use-
ful instrument upon aircraft, but for best re-
sults it should be understood by the aviator and
not relied upon when conditions are such that it
is impossible for it to function.

This condition has become so aggravating that
the United States Navy is ordering a gyro-
scopic compass to be employed on aeroplanes.
Much interest centers in the results that it will
be possible to achieve by substituting this in-
strument for the magnetic compass under prac-
tical service conditions in the air. By extreme
refinement in execution and design it is ex-
pected by the Navy Department that the
weight of this instrument will be reduced to 20
or 30 pounds.

When one is navigating the air and holding
an absolutely true course, that is, with the lub-
ber line of the compass precisely upon the de-
sired heading in azimuth, the direction of flight
coincides with this heading, under the condi-
tion of absence of movement of the medium,
namely the atmosphere, through which the
flight takes place. At first thought, one would
think that at the moment the medium itself was
moving, and especially when this movement was

normal or at a small angle to the direction
of flight, the compass would instantly indicate
the resulting deviation from the true course.
This conception, however, is not correct.

An aviator can hold his course true to the
compass and still be following a course having
a wide angle of deviation from the course in
which he thinks he is flying. For instance,
Carlstrom, in his noteworthy flight from Chi-
cago to New York (equipped with instruments
described later), found he was drifting 17^
degrees, when flying over Cleveland ; his appar-
ent course had to be changed to this extent to
neutralize drift and to maintain the true direc-
tion along the south shore of Lake Erie. This
angle was given him by his drift set, which, al-
though not indispensable, he used throughout
his flight. Carlstrom, however, had the shore
line and general landmarks to aid in his guid-
ance. The case would have been different had
he been flying at sea out of sight of land, where
no landmarks could possibly be seen. Then
certain aids to navigation are indispensable,
and it is the province of this paper to discuss
briefly some general aspects of these instru-
ments and their uses, no effort being made to
present a mathematical or an exhaustive treatise
on the subject.

Determination of Drift

Let us assume an aeroplane maintaining a
compass course due north with the lubber line of
the compass maintained at zero on the card, and
for the moment the compass properly functions
without variation or deviation. In still air the
course of this machine over the surface of the
earth will be north. But suppose, wholly with-
out the knowledge of the aviator, the medium in
which he is flying is itself in motion toward the
east with a velocity equal to that of the aircraft.
It is quite evident that, although he holds his
course with exactitude, the craft itself is passing
over the surface of the earth on a diagonal, that
is, his actual course is northeast; the easterly
component of his course depends upon the east-
ward velocity of the medium. Again, if this
velocity be half of that of the aircraft, then his
real course is 22y 2 degrees, or "north-north-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

east." The question arises: how is the pilot to
obtain this knowledge, or knowledge that he is
drifting at all, so as to make the necessary cor-
rection of course in the absence of landmarks or
other indications to guide him?

A device, worked out by the author some
time ago to give pilots this knowledge, has now
come into general use, and is found to perform
its function satisfactorily. Fig. 1 shows an
earlier form of this device, in which a series of
moving observing tubes acted as a stroboscope.
By the backward movement of these tubes a
point upon the earth's surface could be made to
appear as though it stood still ; the baekwardly
moving point of persistence of vision being ex-
actly equal to the forward advance of the ma-
chine. Knowing the angular velocity of these
vision tubes, or simple telescopes, and the alti-
tude, the actual speed over the earth's surface
was at once obtained. When compared with
the anemometer speed, that is, the real speed of
flight through the atmosphere, a clew was at
once available as to the actual movements of the
atmosphere itself.

This instrument was then carried a step fur-
ther. The telescopes were furnished with
cross-hairs and mounted upon a swiveling base
with a pointer B moving over an azimuth scale
C. When the slow motion of the telescopes
was arrested and one telescope furnished with
one or more fore-and-aft cross-hairs pointed di-
rectly downward, it was found easy to make a

Type of Drift Indicator.

Synchronized Drift Set.

peculiar reading known as the "stream-line ob-
servation."

When one is looking downward at the sur-
face of the earth, through a tube or telescope,
if, instead of looking for specific objects, he
simply observes the passage of all objects across
the field of the tube or telescope, he at once be-
comes conscious of the passage of all of these
objects taking place in certain clearly-defined
parallel lines, which I have denominated
"stream-lines." When one gets somewhat
familiar with this kind of observation, he can
see almost nothing but these stream-lines, and
the nearer the surface or greater the speed, the
more tense and clearly-defined these lines be-
come. Now, if a good, heavy cross-hair be
stretched across the tube or telescope, and the
tube be made so that it can be rotated upon its
major axis, then it is found easily possible so to
rotate the tube as to bring the cross-hair exactly
coincident or parallel with the stream-lines.

The rotating tube or telescope is furnished
with a stationary scale, the zero of which is
coincident with the longitudinal axis of the air-
craft. By taking readings on this scale with
a pointer on the tube opposite the cross-hair, it
becomes easy to determine the angle between
the stream-lines and the major axis of the air-
craft, since the latter always lies in the appar-
ent direction of flight, the angle being between
the stream-lines, or actual direction of flight,
and the aircraft. The determination of such

AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER

107

Drift Compass with Adjustable Lubber.

an angle as this is extremely useful, as it at once
gives the aviator a clew as to what change to
make in his course so that his direction of flight
is such as to neutralize the drift of the medium
through which he is flying, his actual course be-
ing thus brought into exact harmony with the
direction required to reach his destination.

In securing this parallelism the pointer B is
swung upon the scale C and the angle of drift
in degrees can be immediately read on the scale
from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
Many surprises are in store for the pilot or ob-
server when he first makes this observation, as
he often is certain that it cannot be correct. He
cannot believe it possible from his compass
heading, to which he is holding with great ac-
curacy, that he is actually making headway at
so large an angle from its readings. And if he
has had experience at sea with the compass,
this impression is all the more startling, because
it is always true that a ship is traveling prac-
tically on the exact course indicated by its com-
pass. But here the pilot is holding his course
absolutely true to the compass, and yet the
drift indicator shows a quite different
condition of affairs; namely, that he is
actually traveling at a considerable an-
gle to his supposed course.

Fig. 2 shows the instrument de-
scribed mounted upon an aeroplane
and being used by the observer. The
observer in this instance is Captain
Creagh-Osborne, R. N., head of the
Hydrographic Office of the British

Admiralty. The pilot is Lieutenant John H.
Towers, U. S. N.

With the earlier instruments the pilot would
change his course and by trial in error finally
reach a flight heading on the compass card, re-
sulting in actual headway of the aircraft along
the true course; that is, along the line that he
was originally instructed to pursue to reach the
desired destination.

Thus it will be seen that the accurate deter-
mination of drift is an important factor in aerial
navigation. It is true that observations are
somewhat more difficult at great heights and
over rough water, but one soon becomes accus-
tomed to obtaining a mean reading, which is
found to be very accurate. It has also been
definitely ascertained that when flying with the
automatic pilot, with which side disturbances
are practically eliminated, the stream-line ob-
servation becomes very much simplified and ac-
curate at practically all altitudes.

The Synchronized Drift Set

A later form of the apparatus is shown in
Fig. 8, in which a single stationary telescope,
provided with the cross-hairs, is employed for
the moving series of telescopes, inasmuch as the
drift factor is found to be of far more impor-
tance than the actual speed of advance with
reference to the earth's surface.

In Fig. 4 is shown a drift-compass with an
adjustable lubber line and with a little tiller
wheel extending from the side of the case, by
means of which the lubber line is set from the
indications upon the scale C of the drift indi-
cator. The scale upon the bezel of the compass
is used for reading the deflection of the lubber
line. Care "must be taken in moving the lubber

Synchronized Drift Set with Two Compasses.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

ed from aeroplar

line to be sure that its setting is correct as to
direction, and that it is not set on the right side
of the zero when it should be on the left.

A pilot, especially when without the auto-
matic pilot and working alone, has enough cares
without the added one of worrying whether the
compass has been accurately synchronized with
the drift indicator, and whether the direction of
the adjustment is also correct. So my son
Lawrence conceived the idea of coupling them
mechanically, in order that they might be at all
times automatically synchronized. The com-
bined instrument, namely, the synchronized
drift-set has now become the most useful form
of the apparatus and the one most widely
adopted. In this instrument the most minute
azimuth movement introduced by the observer
at once causes a corresponding alteration of the
position of the lubber line of the compass, thus
eliminating the possibility of error either in the
direction of this movement or in its exact
amount. This is found very practical, inas-
much as it vastly simplifies the pilot's operation,
he needing only to continue without change to
hold the lubber line upon the originally selected
point on the compass card. The fact that the
lubber line is displaced, especially if under the

control of the observer, is something
with which the pilot has nothing to do
and is not concerned — he simply con-
tinues on his original compass course.
This arrangement automatically intro-
duces all of the deviations in course to
correct fully for drift, and is found to
save much valuable time and fuel, and
to allow the pilot to reach his destina-
tion by a true meridional course.
With the actual drift known and cor-
rected for, the correction that should be
given the anemometer speed, which is
always known to the operator, can be
determined easily. Thus he has all the
knowledge of the actual forward ad-
vance that is roughly necessary in short
flights.

Fig. 5 shows the synchronized drift
set with the observing telescope to the
left, the compass to the right, and the
compass lubber line thrown around 30
degrees from the longitudinal axis of the air-
craft indicated by the zero on the scale shown
on the bezel. When the observer and the pilot
sit in tandem relation in the aircraft, then it be-
comes desirable that each have a compass. We
have made a number of sets, Fig. 6, in which
two compasses are synchronized by means of a
single drift indicator.

Precautions in Flight Over Water

We will now turn our attention to some re-
finements of the use of this apparatus when one
is flying under actual service conditions over
water. It is always wise to note the direction
of the wind before starting, and also something
as to the length of the wave, that is, the distance
from wave crest to wave crest. A pilot of sea-
planes or an observer, or both, should become
accustomed to estimating this wave length or
distance from crest to crest, say for this coun-
try, in feet, and should also invariably note the
direction of the wind in terms of compass azi-
muth.

In leaving the surface of the water, it should
also be the duty of the personnel to see that the
aneroid is adjusted exactly on zero. This ob-

AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER

109

servation should also be made whenever the
plane is brought close to the surface, thus elimi-
nating effects of changes in barometer in de-
terming actual heights. The uses of these ob-
servations will be presently apparent. Let us
now divide the problem of speed control into
two classes.

In the first class stroboscope methods are
used. One form of the stroboscope is shown
above in Fig. 1. Another instrument working
upon this principle is illustrated in Fig. 7.
Still another simpler form is in course of being
developed for the United States service. The
speed with reference to the surface of the earth
can be ascertained with a good degree of accur-
acy over water. It is, of course, necessary to
know the movement of the sea, or, rather, its
apparent movement, as for instance, the move-
ment of the wave crest. In every instance the
actual angular velocity of the stroboscope, or
of the apparent passage of the earth's surface,
and the careful reading of the aneroid are used
as prime factors.

The second class is where a close approxima-
tion of the actual speed can be ascertained
quickly. Using the anemometer speed as a
base, we determine whether the actual speed is
the same as, or greater or less than the
anemometer speed, and also obtain a close ap-
proximation of how much the variation is. It
is assumed that the anemometer speed is always
available to the navigator. A good anemo-
meter is known to possess a high degree of ac-
curacy.

When the wave crests are small and cannot
he seen directly, the same telescope that is used
to ascertain the stream-line directions can be
employed to observe the direction of the wave
crest. I have had some discussion as to the visi-
bility of the wave crests with some who are
unfamiliar with it, but, as a matter of fact, the
wave crests are clearly visible. Fig. 8 is a re-
production of a photograph taken from a con-
siderable altitude, and shows how clearly visible
these wave crests are. They are an excellent
indicator of two valuable factors: First, from
their length from crest to crest we can ascertain
their speed; and second, their direction always
lies directly normal to that of the wind. In all

probability there also exists a reasonable rela-
tion between the velocity of the wind and the
velocity of the waves, but we will not concern
ourselves with this at the present time. The
waves shown in Fig. 8 are about 10 feet from
crest to crest, giving us a velocity of 7.2 feet
per second. At first glance it might be diffi-
cult to know in which direction these waves are
moving, but with the conditions such as in Fig.
8, there is the simplest possible clew consisting
of the vapors flowing from the funnels of the
two small craft shown. The line of vapors is
seen to be normal to the line of the wave crests.
Bearing these points in mind, the following
rules can be applied to aerial navigation :

1. Note on which side of the keel line or
longitudinal axis of the aircraft lies the actual
or true course, or on which side of the zero on
the bezel of the drift compass lies the adjustable
lubber line. This is the "drift side," and can,
of course, be to the right or to the left. (The
zero on the bezel indicates the keel line.)

2. Note closely the apparent alignment of
the wave crests while the aircraft is being main-
tained on its course,

8. Note the relative angle between the wave
crests and the keel line, and also between the
wave crests and the "drift line," or the align-
ment of the adjustable lubber line.

Speed Indicator Using Stroboscope Method.

110

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

/

/

Fig. 9 / Fig. 10

Outline of Front Part of Flying Boat.

With these observations well in hand, the fol-
lowing deductions can be made :

(a) If the crests lie within the angle between
the keel line and the drift line, then the real
speed is approximately identical with the ane-
mometer speed. If these crests exactly bisect
this angle, then the real speed on the actual
course is exactly the anemometer speed,

(b ) If the aft ends of the crests be toward the
drift side, then the actual speed over the earth's
surface is always greater than the anemometer
speed, because of an abaft wind.

(c) If the aft ends of the crests are away
from the drift side to a greater extent than is
the true course angle or drift line, then the ac-
tual speed is always smaller or less than the
anemometer speed, because of head wind.

(d) If the crests lie exactly at right angles to
the keel line, of course no drift angle exists, and
the stream-lines lie parallel to the keel. How-
ever, it is always known which way the wind is
blowing, from observations made before start-
ing (which have been referred to), and in this
manner we at once know whether we are pass-
ing over the surface of the earth at a faster or
a slower speed than that indicated by the ane-
mometer. Suppose, however, the navigator
should have mislaid his data or forgotten the
direction of the wind or its true azimuth. A
clew to the direction can be obtained as follows :
Change the course sufficiently to make the
stream-lines veer away from the keel line. If

the leading ends of the stream-lines are
seen to move to the left for a right turn,
the wind is a following wind, and if they
move to the right for a rignt turn it is a
head wind. Of course, for a left turn just
the reverse is true. As to whether the
velocity is great or little can easily be
judged from the sea conditions.

In Figs. 9 and 10, b is the forward part
of the flying boat in outline ; A: is the keel
line; I is the lubber line; c is the compass
card. The zero on the compass bezel is
on the keel line; si indicates the stream
lines and their direction ; p is the point on
the compass card indicating the desired
direction of flight. In Fig. 10, Z and V
indicate the "drift line."

Movements of the Wave Crests

As a still further refinement in ascertaining
speed and direction, account should be taken of
the movement of the wave crests themselves.
This can ordinarily be found by determining
the length between the crests, inasmuch as the
velocity varies about as the square root of the
wave length or distance between crests; the
velocity in feet per second equals the wave
length in feet at a point where each is expressed
by the figure 5Yg — to be accurate, 5.123 — that
is, in measuring the distance from crest to crest,
their velocity is also 5.123 feet per second. The
10-feet wave shown in Fig. 8 would therefore
have a velocity of about 7.2 feet per second.

We know the approximate length of this
wave, having observed it before leaving the
water ; but if this has not been done, we can as-
certain the length by dropping down near
enough to the surface of the water to get a fairly
accurate determination of the mean lengths be-
tween wave crests, taking this opportunity also
to note that the aneroid is at zero. Having
thus determined the velocity of the wave crests,
we proceed to determine the corrections.

Corrections for Movement

With reference to the speed, a correction
should be made in proportion to the sine of the
angle between the wave crest and the stream-

AERIAL NAVIGATION OVER WATER

111

line. To obtain the actual speed over the
earth's surface, we should add the speed of the
wave crests to the speeds obtained by strobo-
scope methods in all cases of following wind,
and subtract in case of head wind. The
amounts that are subtracted are equal to the
velocity of the wave crests only when the wave
crests are at right angles to the stream-lines.
At other angles the velocities subtracted or
added are as the sine of the angle between the
wave crests and the stream-line.

As to the influence of the moving wave crests
on the apparent direction of the stream-lines,
it should be noted that (a) the angle between
the stream-lines and the wave crests should be
determined; and (b) starting with the position
where the stream-lines and wave crests lie paral-
lel to each other, as being the condition of maxi-
mum correction, we derive this correction from
the known velocity of the wave crests. The
correction, it should be remembered, is an angu-
lar correction to be applied to the apparent di-
rection of the stream-line, resulting in a refine-
ment of heading, which gives the true meridi-
onal course to the point of destination.

This correction is always proportional to the
ratio of the velocities of wave crests and air-
craft determined, say by stroboscopic methods
or by the anemometer, after the proper correc-
tions have been applied. When the wave crests
and stream-lines are parallel, this ratio is ap-

plied directly. When other angles obtain, the
correction should be multiplied by the cosine of
the angle between the wave crests and the
stream-lines.

One factor now remains, that is, as to whether
the correction is to be applied clockwise or anti-
clockwise. Assuming the observer is facing
the direction of the stream-line or actual flight,
then if the wind is from the right the correction
should be counter-clockwise, and if from his left
the correction should be clockwise. The navi-
gator knows the direction of the wind from his
original observation of its true compass azimuth
before rising from the sea. If, however, this
information is lacking, the direction of the wind
can be found as follows:

Notice the direction of the stream-lines with
respect to the keel line. If this is to the left,
the wind is from the right ; and if to the right,
the wind is from the left. If the stream-lines
happen to be parallel to the keel, then the aero-
plane should be veered to the right or to the left
until the keel line and stream-line lie at an
angle to each other, whereupon the above ob-
servation can be made.

There are a number of other interesting aids
to navigation of aircraft, such as clinometers,
gyroscopic base lines, and artificial horizons,
banking indicators, angle of incidence indi-
cators, and the like, but their uses are apparent
and need little explanation.

Memoranda :

CHAPTER XVII
AEROPLANE GUNS AND AERIAL GUNNERY

Now that aeroplanes are increasing in size
and number to tremendous proportions, the
aeroplane gun becomes a most important fac-
tor. As has been aptly pointed out by Rear-
Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and other authori-
ties, the equipping of the large present-day sea-
planes with a three-inch gun introduces a new
revolutionary factor in naval warfare. This
is especially true because the aircraft is the most
effective weapon against the submarine, and
armed air cruisers equipped with guns ranging
from the one-pounder size to the three-inch size
can protect ships against submarine attacks as
far as the air cruisers can go — which is a few
hundred miles at present but will soon extend
beyond one thousand miles.

Two classes of guns are needed, those which
will represent the artillery of the air and those
which will represent the machine-gun service of
the air. At present we have only the latter, but
experiments are being conducted in the develop-
ing of guns of from one-inch to three-inch cali-
ber, and the prospects are that there will soon
be such guns available.

A British authority stated recently that there
are 40,000 Lewis aeroplane guns in use in Eu-
rope. We know, from the size of the orders
placed by the United States Army and Navy
that there soon will be 10,000 Lewis guns in
use in the United States Army and Navy, part
of which will be for the Air Service. This gives
an idea of the swift development of the light
machine gun.

Besides the Lewis gun, there are being used
in the present war as aeroplane guns, the Vick-
ers-Maxim, the Colt, the Benet Mercier and the
Davis. Owing to the necessity of going to
press with the "Textbook of Naval Aeronau-
tics," the discussion of the different types of
aeroplane guns, available and prospective, and
aerial gunnery in general will be included in the
"Textbook of Military Aeronautics" which is
to follow, also being published by the Century
Company, New York, price $6.00.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER XVIII
SPOTTING THE FALL OF SHOTS

Spotting the fall of shots was one of the first
recognized uses for naval aeroplanes. The em-
ployment of aeroplanes for this purpose greatly
extended the range of vision of ships and became
invaluable in long range, indirect, high-angle
firing.

At first this work was hampered by the lack
of efficient wireless sets to be carried on sea-
planes, to make it possible to the aviators to com-
municate with the man behind the gun. The
weight of wireless sets up to 1914 was between
three and five pounds per mile of transmission,
which was almost prohibitive, as the seaplanes at
the time had a small margin of carrying cap-
acity. By 1916 the weight of sets was cut down
to one pound per mile of transmission, and the
margin of carrying capacity was increased
through general improvements in the construc-
tion of seaplanes.

The first actual tests of seaplanes to spot the
fall of shots took place in July, 1915, when
British seaplanes were used to direct the guns of
monitors to attack the German cruiser Konigs-
berg which was hidden up the Rufigi River, in
East Africa, The writer is fortunate in being
able to present herewith the first complete report
and illustrations of this historic event.

How the Aeroplane* Made It Possible to
Wreck the Konigsberg

The wrecking of the German cruiser by two
British monitors, one of the most remarkable
events of the war, was made possible by sea-
planes. Following is a letter written home by
an English naval officer, which describes the aid
rendered by the two aeroplanes, and shows how
closely the gunners of the sea, as well as the
gunners of the land, have been working as a team

With the air SCOUtS. The action described Was Remarkable snapshot of the Kr,*i 9 .brr U hidden up the tor-

the attack by monitors upon the German cruiser tuous """k 1 ltivcr tak,n fr " M1 onc » ( ihe Hr ' tish seaplanes.

_,. . , Tl , lii.i The Konigiberg is shown by the arrow, on the ripht; nearer is a

Konigsberg. It may be remembered she took supply ship.

113

refuge up the river on the east coast of Central
Africa and was a menace to British interests.
It was found after many months up the river
where she was hidden from the monitors by palm
trees. Aeroplanes were procured after many
weeks and action started. The officer of the
monitor Savern writes:

"We went on higher up the river, and finally
anchored. Two shells fell within eight feet of
the side and drenched the quarterdeck. It was
a very critical time. If she hit us we were prob-
ably finished.

"We had no sooner anchored than the aero-
plane signaled she was ready to spot. Our first
four salvos, at about one minute intervals, were
all signaled as, 'Did not observe fall of shot.'
We came down 400, then another 400 and more
to the left. The next was spotted as 200 yards
over and about 200 to the right. The next 150
short and 100 to the left. At the seventh salvo
we hit with one and were just over with the
other. We hit eight times in the next twelve
shots. It was frightfully exciting. The
Konigsberg was now firing salvos of three only.
The aeroplanes signaled all hits were forward,

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

so we came a little left to get her amidships.
The aeroplane suddenly signaled, 'Am hit; com-
ing down; send a boat.' As they fell they con-
tinued to signal our shots, we, of course, kept on
firing. The aeroplane fell in the water about
150 yards from the Mersey; one man was
thrown clear, but the other had a struggle to get
free. Finally both got away and were swim-
ming for ten minutes before the Mersey's motor-
boat reached them — beating ours by a short
head. They were uninjured and as merry as
crickets."

Following is the official report of the British
Admiralty describing the work of the two aero-
planes :

"The position of the Konigsberg was ac-
curately located by aircraft, and as soon as the
monitors were ready the operations were begun.
On July 4, as the Konigsberg was surrounded
by jungle the aeroplanes experienced very great
difficulty in spotting the fall of the shot. She
was hit five times early in the action, but after
the monitors had fired for six hours the aero-
planes reported that the Konigsberg's masts
were still standing.

"In order to complete the destruction of the
Konigsberg the commander-in-chief ordered a
further attack on July 11, and a telegram has
now been received from him stating that the
ship is a total wreck."

The following are the extracts relating to the
work of aerial scouting on the occasion of the

destruction of the Konigsberg from Vice-
Admiral King-Hall's official despatch pub-
lished on December 9 :

"At 5 :25 a.m. { on July 6 ) an aeroplane, with
Flight Commander Harold E. M. Watkins as
pilot, and carrying six bombs, left the aerodrome
on Mafia Island. The bombs were dropped at
the Konigsberg with the intention of hamper-
ing any interference she might attempt with
the monitors while they were getting into posi-
tion.

"At 5:40 a.m. another aeroplane, with
Flight-Commander John T. Cull as pilot and
Flight Sub-Lieutenant Harwood J. Arnold as
observer, left the aerodrome for the purpose of
spotting for the monitors.

"Returning to the operations of the moni-
tors, fire was opened as before stated at 6:80
a.m., but as the Konigsberg was out of sight it
was very difficult to obtain satisfactory results,
and the difficulties of the observers in the aero-
planes in marking the fall of the shots which fell
amongst the trees were very great, and made
systematic shooting most difficult.

"There being only two aeroplanes available,
considerable intervals elapsed between the de-
parture of one and the arrival of its relief from
the aerodrome, thirty miles distant, and this re-
sulted in a loss of shooting efficiency.

"At 12 :85 one of the aeroplanes broke down,
and at S :50 the second one also. I signaled to
Captain Fullerton to move further up the river,

■■■■

Two Sopwlth seaplanes, which "spotted" for the gunners on the British monitors Savern and Mertey and made It possible to destroy
the German cruiser Konigtberg which was hidden up the Rung! River in German East Africa.

SPOTTING THE FALL OF SHOTS

which he did, until about 12 :50 the tops of the
Konigsberg's masts were visible.

"As it was necessary to make a fresh attack
on the Konigsberg to complete her destruction,
further operations were carried out on July 11,
by which date the aeroplanes were again ready
for service, and the monitors had made good
certain defects and completed with coal.

"The observers in the aeroplanes, by their ex-
cellent spotting, soon got the guns on the target,
and hit after hit was rapidly signaled. At
12:50 it was reported that the Konigsberg was
on fire.

"I have much pleasure in bringing to the no-
tice of their lordships the names of the follow-
ing officers and men: Squadron Commander
Robert Gordon, in command of the air squad-
ron; Flight Commander John T. Cull, Flight
Lieutenant Vivian G. Blackburn, Flight Sub-
Lieutenant Harwood J. Arnold, Flight Lieu-
tenant Harold E. M. Watkins.

"Assistant Paymaster Harold G. Badger,
H. M. S. Hyacinth. This officer volunteered
to observe during the first attack on the Kiinigs-

The Kifnigibtrg after the bom-
bardment of the British monitors
Mersey and Savern, which was
made possible by the aeroplanes.
As a ship the Konigsberg ceased
to exist when she was riddled and
set on fire by the monitors' guns.

berg though he had had no previous experience
of flying.

"Acting Lieutenant Alan G. Bishop, R. M.
L. I. of H. M. S. Hyacinth. This officer vol-
unteered to observe during the second attack on
the Konigsberg though he had had no previous
experience of flying.

"Air Mechanic Ebenezer Henry Alexander
Boggis, Chatham 14841, who went up on April
25 with Flight Commander Cull, and photo-
graphed the Konigsberg at a height of 700
feet. They were heavily fired on, and the en-
gine of the machine was badly damaged.

"Most serious risks have been run by the of-
ficers and men who have flown in this climate,
where the effect of the atmosphere and the ex-
treme heat of the sun are quite unknown to those
whose flying experience is limited to moderate
climates. "Bumps" of 250 feet have been ex-
perienced several times and the temperature
varies from extreme cold when flying at a height
to a great heat, with burning, tropical sun when
on land.

"In the operations against the Konigsberg

One of the destroyed Kdnigibtrg't ?uns mounted In a position Inland. It is a *.l inch, and was transported to one of the German
ports in the Kilimanjaro district in East Africa, used for the campaign and later captured by the British under General Smuts.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Anti-Aircraft gunner ready to snipe the enemy's aircraft.
He is warned of the effect of hostile aircraft by wireless from
stations on land or sea.

on July 6 both the personnel and material of the
Royal Naval Air Service were worked to the
extreme limit of endurance. The total distance
covered by the two available aeroplanes on that
date was no less than 950 miles, and the time in
the air, working watch 'and watch, was thirteen
hours. I will sum up by saying that the flying
officers, one and all, have earned my highest
commendation."

"Spotting" from a Dirigible

Dirigibles are also very extensively employed
in spotting and observing (see Chapter on
Naval Dirigibles) .

"Spotting" from a Kite Balloon

The kite balloon is used extensively for spot-
ting the fall of shots in naval operations, al-
though there has hardly been any opportunity
for the employment of kite balloons to spot in
an actual naval engagement. The spotting has
been done mainly in connection with the protect-
ing of naval bases and ships from submarine
attacks, with an occasional case of warning bat-
tleships and directing their fire on some hostile
raider which was stealing toward some naval
base unseen by the parroting ships. This was
particularly true in the Dardanelles and Salon-
ika campaign, where a good number of kite bal-
loons were used, most of them sent up from

barges stationed out at sea and kite-balloon
ships, from place to place, as explained in the
Chapter on Kite-Balloon Ships.

The kite balloon is sent up to whatever height
is necessary, 2000 feet or more, and from there
the observer officer in the basket telephones to
the officer in charge of the kite-balloon ship
what he sees, and the officer in charge signals
usually by wireless to the battleship's fire con-
trol.

Owing to the extreme altitude to which a kite
balloon can go, it can see much more extensively
than can be seen from a battleship's fire-control
station. A kite balloon on any point on Long
Island could, for instance, see practically every
movement of vessels on both Long Island
Sound and the Atlantic, whereas the fire-control
station of a ship could only see a few miles.
Again, the kite balloon placed on Block Island
could detect the movement of ships within a
radius of fifty miles, thus warning the battle-
ships and coast defenses of the approach of
hostile ships. In the Dardanelles and at Sa-
lonika the observations were especially valuable
in watching the ports and many bays to prevent
Turkish ships from landing munitions and
troops from Asia.

A naval kite balloon tethered to a ship guarding the entrance of
a French harbor and directing the guns of the ships.

SPOTTING THE FALL OF SHOTS

117

When a hostile ship is detected or the target
is on land, the observer in the basket of the kite
balloon notifies the fire control of the ship of the
location of the target and then of the result of
the fire, telling quickly whether the target has
been hit or whether the shot was short or over
and whether the line is right. This is repeated
at every shot and the location of the target and
its movements, in the case of a ship moving
away, are given very rapidly, so that the gun-
ners of the ship can adjust their range accord-
ingly.

While the information regarding the method
of locating batteries and directing gunfire from
kite balloons over land are given in the text
book on "Military Aeronautics," there may be
mentioned here the record of a kite balloon ob-
server, Sub-Lieutenant Maurice Arondel, who
is mentioned in the despatches for his long
service record and exceptional merit. He
carried out his duties from March, 1915, to the
end of 1916, when he was mentioned in the
despatches.

CHAPTER XIX

BOMB DROPPING FROM AIRCRAFT

It will be remembered that the German of-
ficial excuse for declaring war on France was an
unsubstantiated claim that French aviators had
dropped bombs on German soil. The war was
only a few days old when the dropping of bombs
begun. The first case of bomb dropping re-
ported was on August 13, when a German avi-
ator threw a bomb upon the railroad station at
Vesoul, the capital of the Department of Haute-
Saone and two bombs in the town of Lure,
fifteen miles northeast of Vesoul. This was fol-
lowed by the dropping of bombs by German
aviators on Namur on August 15, 1914. On
that day two French aviators flew from Verdun

der difficult weather conditions. Commander
Briggs was shot down and made a prisoner.

On Christmas day, 1914, took place the raid
on Cuxhaven, reported in the chapter on
"Aerial Operations Independent of the Fleet."

On January 11, 1915, fourteen German bi-
planes raided Dunkirk, being the largest num-
ber of aeroplanes employed in one raid up to
that date.

On February 12, 1915, thirty-four British
aeroplanes and seaplanes, under the command
of Wing-Commander Samson, assisted by
Wing-Commander Longmore and Squadron-
Commanders Porte, Courtney, and Rathborne,

to Metz and dropped two bombs on the Zeppe- raided Bruges, Zeebrugge, Blankenberghe, arid
lin sheds there. Ostend districts. On the same day the French
On August 25, 1914, took place the first Zep- aviators dropped 240 bombs on the German
pelin raid, a Zeppelin dropping bombs on Ant- aerodrome at Ghistelle. On March 21-22 took
werp. On August 80 a German aviator place the first Zeppelin attacks on Paris,
dropped bombs on Paris — which was followed . The first air raid on British shores took place
for a time by an almost daily succession of on Christmas eve, 1914, when a German aero-
dropping of bombs on the French capitol. On plane dropped bombs on Dover, which did no
November 21, 1914, three British naval aviators damage. This was followed by a dropping of
-Squadron-Commander E. F. Briggs, Flight- bombs by a German aeroplane on the Thames

Commander J. T. Babbington, and Flight-
Lieutenant V. S. Sippe — flew from French ter-
ritory to Friedrichshafen and dropped bombs
on that chief German Zeppelin center. In this

Estuary district on December 25. The first
Zeppelin raid on British soil took place on Jan-
uary 19, 1915, when Zeppelins visited Norfolk
towns, attacking the seaport of Yarmouth, then

flight the naval aviators penetrated 120 miles the Royal Summer Palace at Sandringham and
into German territory, crossing mountains un- Kings Lynn and Sheringham. In all, nine

towns received bombs, Yarmouth being the
greatest sufferer. The next attack was made
on the night of February 21 and 22, when a
Zeppelin dropped bombs on Braintree, Col-
chester, and Marks Tey.

The air raids on all fronts since 1915 have
been so numerous that it would take a large
book to report them. The following account
of a day's raiding on Zeebrugge, gives an idea
of how easily aeroplanes can attack an enemy
when no ship can approach the enemy's strong-
eropiane bomb holder. hold. It is the report of the raids of February

BOMB DROPPING FROM AIRCRAFT

119

three or (our had been able to carry out their mission.
One of the machines fell into the sea off Dunkirk.
The airman was picked up and the waterplane was
towed in. The raid was therefore postponed until
night, and at 10 p. m. a second start was made. A
methodical bombardment of Zeebrugge was then be-
gun. Each of the icaterplanes in turn rose from the
sea, dashed into Zeebrugge, dropped its bombs, and
returned to the base at sea. As soon as one machine
returned another left, and thus seventeen consecutive
visits were paid to Zeebrugge. While this was going
on from the sea British and French aeroplanes left the
aerodrome on land and completed the work of their
waterplane comrades.

On Friday a further raid was carried out. The en-
tire fleet of waterplanes and the full fleet of British
biplanes and French monoplanes took the air together
and started all over the German positions in Flanders.
Some went as far as Zeebrugge again, while others
visited Ostend and Blankenbcrg. One hundred and
forty bombs, of which thirty were very large, were
dropped on various ammunition and food depots.
The extent of the damage done is not known, but there
were German submarines at Zeebrugge, while the Os-
tend railway station, which was set on fire, was still
11 and IS, 1915, given in the "London Daily burning this afternoon, when some French airmen
Mail*' : made a reconnaissance as far as Ostend.

Lploded French aeroplane bomb.

On Thursday morning (February 11th) at about
8 £0 ten aeroplanes passed high over Dunkirk, coming
from the west, and proceeded to Belgium via the coast.
These were British machines which had flown direct
from England, and they were soon lost in the clouds.
An hour later, however, all the aeroplanes were back
again, as they had met heavy snow-clouds and only

The naval operators who participated in raid-
ing expeditions during 1914-15 used, like all
aviators, steel arrows. These arrows were
about six inches in length, rounded at one end
and brought to a needle point. The other end
for about four inches was deeply grooved.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Effects of Zeppelin bombs on Antwerp, August 25, 1911.

They weighed about six ounces each and were
carried in boxes large enough to hold between
500 and 1000. They were dropped on the
enemy, by a simple device which opened the
bottom of the box.

The sizes and shape and nature of bombs
dropped from aeroplanes and dirigibles have
undergone a continuous change. At first the
bombs weighed mostly from 20 to 25 pounds;

later the weight was increased to 250 pounds.
The Zeppelins also dropped incendiary bombs
intended to set places on fire.

An extended discussion of this subject and a
chapter discussing the instruments used in bomb
dropping will be given in the forthcoming
"Textbook of Military Aeronautics," also
published by the Century Company, New
York.

CHAPTER XX
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Aircraft have made photography of tremen-
dous value in warfare. Whereas at the begin-
ning of the present war commanders thought
that it was wonderful to be able to get clear
written or sketched reports of conditions from
air scouts who had flown over the enemy lines,
to-day they expect photographic evidence.

It is not sufficient for an aviator to return
from a raid and report that he dropped bombs
on a given place and did certain damage. He
must bring back photographic proofs, and he
usually does. Likewise, the observer sent out
on an aerial reconnaissance brings back a series
of photographs, which are promptly put to-
gether and enlarged by experts, and photo-
graphic maps are constructed therefrom, show-
ing the exact topography of the country,

existing conditions, location, composition, and
disposition of fleets or steamers and transports,
and of land defenses protecting the approaches
to harbors of places of strategic importance.
The accuracy obtained by aerial photography is
so revolutionary from a military standpoint that
it would have been inconceivable before the pres-
ent war to be able to realize it. As a matter
of fact, the commander can have a moving pic-
ture taken in a few hours which will show the
exact conditions between any two given points,
and enable him to plan his operations accord-
ingly.

Of course, the commander of the opposing
forces has the same privilege — unless one side
has the mastery of the air and is in a position to
prevent the aviators of the other side from fly-

Tliis most remarkable photograph of a squadron of Bit
most significant. It shows how clearly the came

isan battleships on the Baltic Sea taken at a height of over 4000 feet, Is
i reports the composition and the disposition of the enemy's fleet

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

A railroad bridge destroyed by an Allied naval aviator In the Balkan theater of war. Aviators must n
evidence of their accomplishments whenever possible.

i bring back photographic

ing over their own lines and taking photographs.
To prevent this is of as much importance as pre-
venting the enemy aviators from dropping
bombs. Therefore, every effort is made to
command the air. The accompanying photo-

graphs show the photographic proofs of the
aviator's accomplishments.

In a report of a bombing raid on the Turkish
lines by a seaplane squadron, which started from
a seaplane carrier at Salonika, Lieut. Francois

Photograph of Gallipoli taken by

[ the Allied aviators from a height of 3600 feet. Every inlet is clearly shown, also the
ships in the bay.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

r &

i&L

A British naval aviator starting out to film a
military observation.

Bemou, who was on the seaplane carrier Ben-
Ma-Chree, relates how, after the aviators had

returned from the raid they were ordered hack
to get photographic evidence of the damage
done. Returning to the spot to get photo-
graphic evidence, instead of waiting to take it
after the smoke of the bombs has cleared away,
is often wise, as the aircraft guns and the
enemy's fighting aeroplanes are usually in ac-
tion soon after the aviators begin to drop their
bombs. This is to be decided after consider-
ing the conditions obtaining in each case.

The speed and accuracy in locating things
permitted by aerial photography is positively
revolutionary. Within a few minutes after the
photograph is received, the experts, with a
knowledge of the height at which the photo-
graph was taken, and by means of special de-
vices, promptly find the compass direction, lo-
cation, size of objects, and distance between
objects shown on the photograph.

Memoranda;

CHAPTER XXI
RADIO TELEGRAPHY

To the United States belongs the distinction
of having made the first experiments to enable
a seaplane to communicate with a ship by radio.

The first wireless message ever sent from a
hydroaeroplane was received at Annapolis on
July 26, 1912, on the United States torpedo
boat Stringham. The message sent by Ensign
Charles Hamilton Maddox from a height of
800 feet was as follows : "We are off the water,
going ahead full speed on course for Naval
Academy." The pilot of the hydroaeroplane
was Lieutenant John Rodgers, U. S. N-, an of-
ficer of the Navy Aviation School. The appar-
atus was designed by Ensign Maddox and had
several new features, including type of aerial
and a receiving device to overcome the noise of
the engine. That achievement was especially
remarkable because the hydroaeroplanes. of that

time had a limited lifting capacity and the
weight required for dry batteries or storage cells
to furnish the current since there were no small
generators available to be driven by the engine
of the aeroplane, was prohibitive.

Of course Zeppelins and large dirigibles had
been carrying radio sets for a number of years,
capable of receiving as well as transmitting. It
will be remembered that the passenger-carry-
ing Zeppelins often carried such sets, and it was
one of the marvels of the passengers of the air-
ships to learn from the crew that the airship was
in constant wireless communication with differ-
ent stations. But the dirigible sets weighed
complete between two and three hundred
pounds, which would have been prohibitive to
the small seaplanes used before 1914.

Until the beginning of the war we marveled

First test of wireless made from a hydroaeroplane in the United States Navy, July, 1913. Ensign Maddox is shown sitting in
the navy's first Wright machine, ready for a flight to test its wireless outfit. The complete receiving apparatus is suspended in
front of the operator by a strap passing over his shoulders, which protects the delicate device from harmful vibration. The double
bead telephone receivers are worn under a specially constructed Cap, which assists in keeping out external noises. The sending key
is mounted on a T-shaped baseboard, the vertical part of which is gripped by the operator's knees. A hot-wire ammeter is
mounted beside the key. A switch within reach of the operator throws from sending to receiving. The aerial in this case is
permanently fixed to the planes. The insert shows an aerial permanently attached to a navy aeroplane, which required no trail-
ing wire. This type of aerial proved successful for moderate distances of communication.

124

RADIO TELEGRAPHY

The cock-pit with arrangement
of the 140-mile sending set and the
experimental receiving wireless ap-
paratus, invention of Captain C. C.
Culver, United States Army.

at a small aeroplane radio set transmitting one
mile per pound weight, but the progress made
in the past two years has been extensive and at
present we get three miles per pound weight.
In different chapters are given further details
regarding the use of seaplanes and dirigibles
equipped with radio for different purposes. In
the Chapter on "Spotting the Fall of Shots"
are given details about the application of radio
from aircraft for spotting the fall of shots.

Lack of time prevents the author from giving
in the "Textbook of Naval Aeronautics" a
more extensive chapter on Radio Telegraphy.
This Chapter will be given in the forthcoming
"Textbook of Military Aeronautics," which is
being published by the Century Company, New
York, price $6.00.

A British authority recently defined briefly
four general rules to be adopted by the wireless
operators from aircraft as follows:

(1) See before starting that the wireless in-
strument is properly adjusted to send strong
signals.

(2) Don't send when turning; always send
when the nose of the machine is towards the re-
ceiving station.

(3) Don't send too near the receiving sta-
tion ; a minimum distance of from 2,000 to 3,000
yards gives better results.

(4) Don't send jerkily; send evenly and re-
member that slow, bad sending is quite as un-
desirable as quick bad sending. In sending
slowly, don't stop in the middle of a word, a set
of code letters, figures or coordinates.

A seaplane of the Allies returning to the seaplane carrier at night, in the Mediterranean.

CHAPTER XXII
NIGHT FLYING

The night affords the best opportunities for
effective work, and night flying is, therefore,
common on the war fronts. Before the war
only dirigibles navigated the air at night, but
now all types of aircraft go up in the dark.
Even kite balloons are sent up at night to scan
the face of the waters for ships.

In leaving a seaplane station or seaplane
carrier at night, successfully navigating the air,
and returning to the base, three distinct things
are accomplished. On leaving the base all
lights must be subdued as much as possible, to
avoid attracting the attention of enemy air-
craft, but, otherwise, the task is fairly easy.

To navigate the air in the dark successfully
with a seaplane requires experience and knowl-
edge of compass and navigating instruments.
The most difficult task is to And the base and
return to it. Lights on land or water can be
seen from a height of 5000 feet or more, but
they may be the lights of hostile ships or enemy
bases. To identify them the aviator may drop
a flare parachute, which lights the objects be-
low but does not disclose the position of the
airman. It is seldom convenient for an
enemy's vessel to admit its presence, but when

it is, the sky is flooded with the beams of
searchlights, and the anti-aircraft guns fire at
the aircraft.

The aviator reports his findings to the ship
or station by wireless, and when ready to land
flashes a Veri light according to the predeter-
mined signals. Then the searchlights of the
ship or station are turned on the spot where
the aviator is to land, and the landing is made.

First Night Flight Over Water in the
United States

The first night flight over water in the United
States was made by Lawrence B. Sperry on
the evening of September 1, 1916. He flew
from Moriches to Amityville, fifty miles away,
in pitch dark, lighting his way over the dark
waters of the bay with specially arranged lights
attached to his aeroplane, and guiding his
course by compass.

Mr. Sperry, accompanied by his mechanic,
started from Moriches at 8:22 on the evening
of September 1, to fly to his hangar at Amity-
ville. His flying boat was equipped with a
new night-flying outfit, constructed by Mr.

NIGHT FLYING

127

A parachute flare dropped by I

the ship below him.

find the nature of

matic pilot, which controls its course and main-
tains its even keel, and directed by compass,
flew without trouble to and landed at Amity-
ville.

The Sperry night-flying outfit consists of a
bank of three stream-lined searchlights of 50
candle-power each. Through the use of para-
bolic reflectors each lamp throws a light beam
of approximately 40,000 candle-power. These
lights are mounted on a cleverly designed fit-
ting which secures them to the leading edge of
either the upper or lower plane. This mount-
ing is so constructed that the lights can be tilted
in a vertical plane, making it possible to use
them for signaling purposes and at the same
time rendering them most efficient for landing.
The tilting of the lights is secured by turning a
small knob fastened within easy reach of the
pilot so that the lights can be operated with-
out interfering with the control of the ma-
chine.

The lights themselves are controlled by a
specially designed push switch, normally held
open by a spring, which is operated like a tele-
graph key for signaling and, by giving the top
a quarter turn, locks in a closed position when
desired.

The current supply is secured from a very
efficiently designed generator of 150-watt ca-
pacity, mounted on a convenient part of the
machine, where it will not be in the slip stream,
and is driven by means of a wind turbine at
4000 revolutions per minute. By means of an

Sperry. After the lights were switched on
and the aeroplane started, the machine sped
through the black sky with weird effect. The
machine, entirely operated by the Sperry auto- automatic cutout, one of the three lamps remain

Curtiss F boat equipped with Sperry night flying equipment, consisting of the bank of three lights which can be moved In ver-
tical plane, current being supplied by a wind turbine driven generator, shown to left of radiator on top plane. Both the lights and
the generator can be seen mounted on the leading edge of the upper plane.

128 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

lighted should anything happen to cut off the The suhject of night-flying will be discussed

main current supply. A compact storage bat- thoroughly in all its phases in the "Textbook of

tery is automatically thrown into circuit which Military Aeronautics" issued by the Century

is otherwise floating on the line. Company.

Memoranda:

\^ • ^fe^^^Kh^I

The Instrument board of a

1, Wnteh: 2. Altimeter (reristerlnR height
nclinometer Registering Level Fore «nd Aft;
Ucator; 11, OMoline Supply Pipe.

CHAPTER XXIII

INSTRUMENTS FOR AERIAL NAVIGATION

In the official report of the investigations of
the British Royal Flying Corps, made at the
close of 1916, there occurs the following detailed
description of the aeronautical instruments and
maps available to-day for naval air pilots :

"Maps. — The question of maps has been un-
favorably commented on and some witnesses
consider that, if maps had been clearer, pilots
would have found it easier to recognize places,
and an accident, such as occurred on May 31
last, when Lieutenant Littlewood lost his way
and was captured with his machine in Lille,
would never have happened,

"The directorate have had great trouble in
getting suitable maps, owing to the fact that air
operations extend over so many different coun-
tries, the maps of which differ in style and scale.
For instance, in the course of a flight, machines

frequently pass over parts of England, France,
and Belgium. On the whole, though the con-
struction of maps was necessarily rather slow,
we do not consider that any fault can be found
with the Royal Flying Corps, nor can we attri-
bute the loss of the machine in Lille to the map,
which was the same which all pilots flying across
to France use, and seems to us reasonably suf-
ficient.

"Some further adverse comment has been
made by witnesses because the maps for the
theater of war have not been constructed on the
process by which Lord Montagu has produced
maps for air pilots over this country. There
are several reasons given why these undoubtedly
excellent air pilot maps have not been con-
structed, and with these we are in sympathy.

" ( a ) The process was a private invention and

130

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

quite unknown to the military authorities until
December, 1915.

"(b) Even if the invention had been known,
it could not have been adopted for military
pilots, as it is essential, whilst learning to fly,
that the latter should use the same type of map
as they will find in vogue in the theater of war.

"(c) To produce maps of the theater of war
on Lord Montagu's plan would take time,
though it could probably be done.

"(d) The maps, if produced, would be use-
less, owing to its being essential for the purpose
of orders, reports, descriptions, etc., that pilots
should use the same maps as the army to which
they belong unless Lord Montagu's maps
should prove to be suitable for the ordinary work
of any army. This we think possible although
they have not yet been adopted.

"Compasses. — The provision of a suitable
compass has presented very real difficulties, and
only quite lately has it been possible to invent a
really satisfactory one. It appears that the
twisting and turning of an aeroplane are so
sharp and sudden that no existing compass was
trustworthy in an aeroplane; and it has been
urged that an indifferent compass was useless,
and that the number of high-class compasses was
very limited. There are certainly instances in
the earlier days of the war of machines flying
without compasses owing to there being none to
give them; and, later on, isolated instances due
to the negligence or rashness of local officers who
were responsible for seeing that a machine was
properly equipped before leaving the ground.

"Altimeters. — The complaint that altimeters
were limited to registering a height of 10,000
feet, and that they burst if an aircraft rose above
that height, appears to be borne out by fact,
and, here again, was a surprise of the war.
When hostilities commenced 10,000 feet was
considered an ample maximum height, but the
range and accuracy of anti-aircraft guns in-
creased, until machines were hit at over 20,000
feet, and the range of the altimeter had to be in-
creased. Consequently, there was a period
when there were no suitable altimeters for
flights above 10,000 feet, but the committee have
no reason to suppose that the period was unduly
protracted."

The foregoing official report demonstrates the
importance of aeronautical instruments and the
development that has taken place in the past few
years.

The number and variety of instruments avail-
able for navigating aircraft is extraordinary, as
is shown by the following specifications prepared
by the National Advisory Committee on Aero-
nautics :

For the information of those concerned with
the use or production of instruments used in the
navigation and operation of aircraft, the follow-
ing general list and specifications have been pre-
pared with a view to indicating the lines on
which development is required, and the restric-
tions and difficulties to be overcome in the de-
sign and construction of aeronautical instru-
ments :

Barometer or altimeter.

Compass.

Air-speed meter.

Inclinometer.

Drift meter.

Tachometer.

Oil gage.

Oil pressure gage.

Gasoline gage.

Gasoline flow indicator.

Distance indicator.

Barograph.

Angle of attack indicator.

Radiator temperature indicator.

Gasoline feed system pressure indicator.

Sextant.

Aeroplane director.

Stallometer.

General Requirements

All indicating instruments required in the
navigation of aircraft should be as compact,
rugged, and light as is consistent with accuracy,
reliability, and durability, and with ease of read-
ing. Such instruments must be free from the
influence of the following disturbing effects, ex-
cepting, of course, those effects on which they
depend for their operation, viz., vibration,
change of altitude, and change of tempera-
ture.

INSTRUMENTS FOR AERIAL NAVIGATION

Barometer or Altimeter

Barometers or altimeters must be sensitive
and of open scale, and the lag in their operation
should be the absolute minimum obtainable.
When operating in a fog it is essential that the
distance above the surface should be known

Aviation barometer or altitude meter.

within very close limits. Such instruments, of
course, are dependent on barometric pressure
and on variations of barometric pressure from
the time of the start of a flight until the comple-
tion of a flight, which cannot be provided for,
but aside from this error their indication should
be substantially accurate once they are adjusted
at the point of departure. It is, therefore,
necessary that the scale should be of equal di-
visions, as otherwise a change of zero to meet
change of barometric height will introduce an
error. Their location on the aeroplane must be
carefully chosen so that their indications will not
be influenced by the velocity pressures in flight.

Compass

Compasses should have as high a directive
force as is consistent with restricted dimensions.
Provision should also be made in the compass
mounting for compensation for the presence of
magnetic material in the construction of the
aeroplane, particularly compensation for heel-
ing and dipping errors. In order that the di-
rective force shall not be abnormally reduced by
such compensation, it is, of course, desirable that
the structure should avoid the use of magnetic
materials in moving parts near the compass loca-
tion, such as the control columns, shafts, and
leads.

Air-Speed Meter

An air-speed meter should indicate reliably
the speed through the air, and should be free
from the effects of accelerations, as when the
machine is banking strongly in a turn the effect
of gravitation is augmented by the presence of
the centrifugal force. As the sustaining power
of an aeroplane is dependent upon the density
of the atmosphere, it is considered that air-speed
meters which are dependent on the pressure due
to velocity will be a safer form of indicator than
a true anemometer type.

It is essential that the indicators shall be par-
ticularly sensitive and have an open scale read-
ing at velocities approaching a stalling speed,
which is the lower limit of safe flying speed. It
is also necessary that they should indicate high
speeds accurately, in order that excessive speed
may be avoided when gliding. Excessive speed
in gliding involves danger when a machine is
brought up too sharply, as the combination of
high speed and the maximum lift factor may
readily stress the machine beyond safe limits.
Also, when flying at high speed the angles of at-
tack are small, and there is danger of the aero-
plane entering a critical condition in which the
flow of air may develop radical changes of state,

and consequently great changes in the lifting
power available. Air-speed meters should be
capable of calibration immediately prior to a
flight. Air-speed meters of the Pilot type de-
pendent on a fluid are subject to gravitational
errors when banking. They are also subject to

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

error due to heeling or diving. Unless the leads
from the Pilot tube to the indicating instru-
ments are sufficiently large, there is also danger
of a serious lag in indications.

Inclinometer

Inclinometers of the pendulum or spirit-level
type are inaccurate in the presence of accelera-
tions and are only useful as a general check as to
the attitude of the machine when flying in a fog.

It is very desirable that an indicator free from
these defects shoidd be developed. A gyro-
scopic base line is considered desirable not only
for purposes of indicating inclination but as af-
fording a base line for sighting and for the use
of instruments of navigation.

Drift Meter

Drift meters are of two types — one designed
for the purpose of indicating leeway over the
surface for use in connection with navigation,
and the other, more properly termed "side-slip
indicator," for the purpose of indicating
whether or not the machine is flying square to
the wind. The latter designation is considered
preferable for indicating the attitude of the ma-
chine. For navigating over the ground the
course is readily determined by ascertaining the
apparent motion of objects on the surface, and
the same method is available for navigating over
the water, provided there is a definite object on
which to sight. One type of drift meter indi-
cates by the streaking of waves across the ob-
jective glass of the instrument as apparent drift,
but as the particles of waves themselves which
indicate this streaking have a velocity of their
own, such indications are subject to error. If
the surface wind direction or velocity were
known, correction might be made, but when fly-
ing at an altitude of several thousand feet it is
very likely that the aeroplane itself may be in an
entirely different current of air than that pres-
ent at the surface. In addition to this, tidal

currents may also affect the velocity of the water
particles. Two forms of side-slip indicators
exist, the simplest form being that of the well-
known string or pennant, but the latter cannot
be used satisfactorily in the wake of a tractor
propeller. The other type consists of a very
sensitive pendulum which indicates whether or
not lateral accelerations are present, as will be
the case for a machine which is not properly bal-
anced laterally, but such an instrument is sub-
ject to the defect* that if the machine is side
slipping laterally at a constant speed, lateral
acceleration is no longer present. It can only
be depended on to indicate initial disturbances.

Tachometer

Tachometers should be absolute in their indi-
cations, and if electrical should not be subject to
disturbances in the conductivity of circuits from
any cause, or to deterioration of magnetism of a
permanent magnet.

Oil Gage

Oil gages must definitely indicate the
amount of oil present in the crank case.

Oil gage used on aeroplanes.

Oil-Pressure Gage

Oil-pressure gages must acurately indicate
the pressure in the oil system and should also in-
dicate that the flow of oil is undisturbed.

Gasoline Gage

Gasoline gages should indicate the amount of
gasoline available in the main tanks, and should

INSTRUMENTS FOR AERIAL NAVIGATION

not depend on the visibility of gasoline in a glass its indications should be clearly legible to the
tube, as, due to the transparency of gasoline, a pilot. It should be designed for attachment in
full tank and an empty tank would give the advance of the wings on a tractor biplane and
same indications. Mechanical indicators are clear of the influence of the propeller or the fuse-
considered preferable. lage.

Gasoline-flow Indicator

Gasoline-flow indicators should depend on
mechanical means of indicating that the gasoline
is being supplied from the main tanks to the
service tanks.

Distance Indicator

For navigation at sea or over unknown coun-
try, it is desirable that a record of distance flown
through the air should be available. If it were
not for the fact that the slip of the propeller de-
pends largely on the load of the machine, and
whether or not the machine is climbing or glid-
ing, an engine counter would serve this purpose,
but it is considered preferable to have a counter
or recorder actuated by an anemometer for this
purpose. In either case, actual distance over
the surface will require correction for the wind
velocity and direction.

Barograph

Barographs are subject to the same general
specifications as altimeters.

Angle of Attack Indicator

An angle of attack indicator should be dead
beat, free from the effects of gravitation, and
accurately respond to and indicate any change
of the directions and flow of air to the support-
ing surfaces. It should be light, rugged, and

Incidence indicator.

Radiator Temperature Indicator

A radiator temperature indicator should be
readily inserted in the top of the radiator and
should clearly indicate the best operating
temperature. The thermometer should con-
form to best practice, and the entire instrument
be sufficiently rugged to withstand reasonable
vibration and shock.

Gasoline Feed System Pressure Indicator

Where the gasoline feed is not gravitational,
the indications of the pressure available must be
accurate. The gasoline feed system pressure
indicator must not be affected by vibration or
change of temperature. It must have a good
scale and a deadbeat action.

Sextant

Sextants should be as light and small as pos-
sible commensurate with proper accuracy. A
sextant for measuring the altitude of a heavenly
body above a horizontal plane without the use of
the sea horizon or an artificial horizon would be
most desirable.

Aeroplane Director

An aeroplane director for the mechanical
solution of the course and distance made good,
based on the course and speed of the aeroplane
and the force and direction of the wind, is a de-
sirable development.

Warns the Aviator Against
Stalling

The stallometer is an instrument that
warns the aviator when his machine is ap-
proaching a stalling condition by indicat-
ing that the minimum air speed has
been reached. It is mounted in any con-
venient position where the air flow is unob-
structed.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Sperry stallometer is adjustable for any
desired air speed, depending on the aeroplane on
which it is installed. 'When the predetermined
speed is reached an electric contact is made in
the stallemometer, closing the circuit to an indi-
cating lamp which is mounted on the instrument
board.

Signals Aviator to Keep the Aeroplane Level

Aviators wishing to know at any time the cor-
rect fore-and-aft position of the machine, with
reference to the horizontal, can read it on the
scale of the Sperry deadbeat clinometer.

Cockpit of Curtis* aeroplane flown by Carlstruiu in Chicago-New York flight.

The operation of this instrument is simple.
Whenever the clinometer is tipped forward or
backward by the motion of the aeroplane this
movement is registered on a scale mounted
on a wheel which is damped by floating in a
liquid.

If the aeroplane tips forward, the scale moves
upward indicating in degrees below the zero line
the exact angle. If the machine tips backward,
the scale moves downward, the exact
amount which is likewise shown in de-
grees. The scale is painted in radium
so that it is visible at night by its own
light.

The case, measuring four and three-
eighths inches in over-all diameter, is
made of a bronze spinning and painted
black. The clinometer is usually
mounted on the instrument board in
the pilot's cockpit. But it may be
placed elsewhere in the fuselage, pro-
viding that location is such that the
instrument can be seen at all times.
Though comparatively new, the Sperry
clinometer has already rendered valu-
able and efficient service in its particular
field.

The United States Navy aero camp and hangar tents at Guantanamo Bay.

CHAPTER XXIV
UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

To the United States Navy belongs the dis- Between April 12, 1911, and the latter part

tinction of having been the first to take steps to of August, 1912, a total of 593 flights were

organize an aviation section. This was early made by the instruction officers — Lieutenants

in 1911, when Congress made the first appropri- Ellyson and Towers in the Curtiss machines

ation for naval aeronautics, the amount of which and Lieutenants Rodgers and Herbster in the

was $25,000. Wright machine. In December, 1911, the

Three officers — Lieutenants T. G. Ellyson, three machines and the aviators were trans-
John Rodgers, and John H. Towers, U. S.N. — ferred to San Diego, and a camp was estab-
were ordered to aeroplane factories for in- lished there for the winter season. Then it was
struction, and three machines — two Curtiss and transferred to Annapolis, near the Engineering
one Wright — were purchased. A land aero- Experiment Station, on the north shore of the

drome was established on Greenbury Point,
Annapolis, Maryland, with three hangars for
the machines, which did not yet have pon-
toons.

These officers made extensive experiments in
launching aeroplanes by means of a cable-
launching device at Hammondsport, New York,
which was the forerunner of the catapult de-
veloped by Captain W. I. Chambers, L T . S. N.,
who was in charge of naval aviation at that
time.

Subsequently, in the spring of 1912, the per-
sonnel of the Aviation Section was increased by
the addition of Ensign V. D. Herbster, U. S.
N.; Assistant Naval Constructor H. C. Rich-
ardson, U. S. N.; Lieut. I. F. Dortseh, IT. S.
N.; Lieut. L. N. McNair, and First-Lieut. A.
A. Cunningham, U. S. Marine Corps.

Severn River.

During this period the United States Navy
led the navies of the world in naval aviation.
Its experimentations, while not extensive, were
of fundamental importance, and its aviators
made history in many ways.

On May 9, 1912, Rear-Admiral Bradley A.
Fiske, commander of Second Squadron, At-
lantic Fleet, made the first aerial reconnaissance
ever made by a naval officer of rank. W. Star-
ling Burgess and P. W. Page flew to and
landed alongside the U. S. S. Georgia, the flag-
ship, anchored at Salem Harbor, and subse-
quently Rear-Admiral Bradley A. Fiske made
a flight on the Burgess- Wright hydroaeroplane
piloted by P. W. Page.

On June 28, 1912, Lieut. John Rodgers flew
from the Aero Station near Ann&^aU& ^ *&&

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Naval Aviation Camp at Annapol!

battleship Louisiana. Ascending at 11 o'clock,
the aviator shot his plane directly ahead at an
altitude of about 400 feet, and alighted on the
starboard side of the battleship about thirty-
five minutes later. The aviator subsequently
performed a number of evolutions and returned
to the experiment station opposite Annapolis
at four o'clock.

On October 6, 1912, Lieut. John H. Towers
made a world's duration record for hydroaero-
planes, and an American endurance record for
aeroplanes of any kind by flying a Curtiss hy-
droaeroplane six hours and ten minutes, flying
from Annapolis over the Chesapeake Bay. On
December 17 of that year, the anniversary of
the first aeroplane flight, there was tried at the
Washington Navy Yard Captain W. Irving
Chamber's catapult device for launching aero-
planes from battleships. The new Curtiss fly-
ing boat, carrying Lieutenant Ellyson, was
launched successfully. (See chapter on
Launching Aeroplanes From Ships.) There
were also conducted valuable experiments in
radio telegraphy communication between hy-
droaeroplanes and ships.

On October 9, 1913, the Navy Board convened
a Board of Aeronautics consisting of Capt. W.
Irving Chambers, U. S. N., Aeronautic Ex-
pert; Commander C. B. Brittain, U. S. N.,
Asst. Chief of Bureau of Navigation; Com-
mander S. S. Robison, U. S. N., Assistant
Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering;
Lieut. M. H. Simons, U. S. N., of the Bureau
of Ordnance; Naval Constructor H. C. Rich-

Greenbury Point marked by arrow.

ardson, U. S. N., Bureau of C. and R.; Lieut.
J. H. Towers, U. S. N., Aviator; First-Lieut.
A. A. Cunningham, U. S. M. C. This board
rendered a report, making many important
recommendations, including the assigning of a
reserve ship to aeronautic duty, the establish-
ing of an aeronautic station at Pensacola Navy
Yard, and the acquisition of dirigibles, observa-
tion balloons, and other equipment for a sub-
stantial air service. There was also recom-
mended the establishing of an office of navy
aeronautics, "to be under the charge of a direc-
tor of naval aeronautics with the rank of cap-
tain, if practicable, who shall coordinate the
work of the office for the Secretary of the Navy
in conformity with the departmental organiza-
tion and in cooperation with the necessary as-
sistants representing the bureaus."

The U. S. S. Mississippi was detached from
the reserve fleet and assigned as aeronautic sta-
tion ship at Pensacola, Florida. It remained
on aeronautic duty until the summer of 1914,
when it was sold to Greece, and the North Caro-
lina was assigned to take its place.

United States Navy Aviation Section Hold*
Distinction of Being First to Operate
Under Conditions Approximating War-
fare.

The Aviation Section of the United States
Navy distinguished itself in the summer of 1914
at Vera Cruz. What the naval aviators ac-
complished at Vera Cruz, as well as an interest-

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

137

ing discussion of the status of seaplanes at that
time, and an expression of the United States
Navy's needs were given in the following letter
from Secretary of the Navy Daniels to the
writer, under date of May 19, 1914:

NAVY DEPARTMENT

Washington

May 19, 1914.
To Mr. Henry Woodhouse,
297 Madison Ave.,
New York City.
Dear Mr. Woodhouse:

(1) Your letter of the 8th instant has been re-
ceived.

(2) The Navy had just about established an aero-
nautic center at Pensacola, Florida, when the mobili-
zation of the Fleet in Mexican waters became neces-
sary. Aeroplanes are now considered one of the arms
of the Fleet the same as battleships, destroyers, sub-
marines, and cruisers. That the Navy's aeronautical
service was well organized was shown by the prompt
way in which the Aeroplane Division got away from
Pensacola to take part in the mobilization in Mexi-
can waters. At noon, Sunday, the 19th of April,
Patrol orders were received at Pensacola for the First
Aeroplane Section to embark on the Birmingham.
In six hours two aeroplanes, with all spare parts for
active service, two hangar tents, and tents and camp
equipment for three officers and ten men of the Sec-
tion, were on dock ready to go on board the Birming-
ham. The Second Aeroplane Section was just as
quick when the orders were issued. The Aeronautical
training ship Mississippi under the command of Lieut-
Commander H. C. Mustin was also ordered from Pen-
sacola to join Admiral Badger's Fleet off the east
coast of Mexico. The Second Aeroplane Section was
embarked on board the Mississippi. The First Aero-

plane Section is under the command of Lieut. J. H.
Towers, U. S. N., and the Second Section under the
command of Lieut. P. N. L. Bellinger, and these two
sections forming a division are under the command
of Lieut-Commander H. C. Mustin.

(8) The First Aeroplane Section on board the
Birmingham has been stationed off Tampico, and
there has been no necessity for any work by this sec-
tion.

(4) The Mississippi with the Second Aeroplane
Section on board arrived off Vera Cruz on the 25th
of April and within five minutes after the anchor was
dropped one of the aeroplanes was in the air. Every
day since then and often more than once a day the
navy aeroplanes have scouted along the outposts and
far beyond our lines, mapping the country and ob-
serving the motions of the Mexican forces.

(5) The latter part of last year, Mr. A. B. Lam-
bert of St. Louis, with much public spirit, organized
a United States Aviation Reserve Corps. Recently,
when it seemed likely that our armed forces might be
called out, Mr. Lambert volunteered to assist the
Navy Department to ascertain the aviators, mechani-
cians, and aeroplanes that would be available if the
Navy required them. Mr. Lambert at his own ex-
pense has traveled widely over the country, gather-
ing valuable information for the Navy. In addition,
there has been a large number of aviators who have
personally offered their services to the Government.
All such applications are on file ready for reference
if the necessity arises to call for volunteers. It is
gratifying to find that the Navy could be most ably
reinforced in its Air Service. It does not seem prob-
able that volunteers will be called for, but this experi-
ence has been invaluable in collecting such useful in-
formation, and will also lead to better plans for a
reserve or volunteer force for future eventualities.
If volunteers ever are needed the greater the knowledge
they have of flying in the open sea the better they will

The hangars of the Annapolis aerodrome in 1911. The navy Wright machine before hydroplanes were placed on It

188

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

be able to acquit themselves in assisting the Navy.

(6) The greatest amount of flying for pleasure,
sport, or commercial purposes is over land or inland
waters. The aeronautic service for the Navy must
operate over the open sea. Therefore, the greatest
developments in aeroplanes have been along lines that
have not given the best aid to the Navy. Hydroaero-
planes and flying boats well fitted for use on inland
waters fail in rough water in the open sea. At Mo-
naco last April, the most experienced aviators like
Frevost, Jansor, Moinau, and Berlin did not start a
race because of a rough sea, and Garros only suc-
ceeded after a second trial, while Brindejonc des Mou-
linais gave it up after trying three times. Hirth, the
German aviator that made a world's record flight from
Gotha to Marseilles, capsized when landing on the
water in Samaris Bay. Moineau made a tine landing
in the same bay, but was capsized by a large wave
while trying to get away. Those aviators who made
the successful flights from Marseilles to Monaco in
the "Aerial Rally" were fortunate in not finding rough
water when they had to make the landing on the water
required by the rules,

(7) It is probable that many of the problems of
aeronautics in the Navy will have to be solved without
much aid from outside sources. Anyway, this will be
so until such time as cross-ocean flights become a com-
mercial success, or at least readily accomplished.
The Navy now feels that a flying radius of 800 miles
is required for its aeroplane service. It is not too
much to expect, but to accomplish this there must be
much improvement in motors and refinement of design
and of construction of the aeroplanes. I am sorry
we have no photographs of the operations in Mexican
waters to send you.

Very truly yours,
(Signeh) Josephus Daniels,

Secretary of the Navy.

Besides the officers mentioned in Secretary
Daniels's letter the following officers partici-
pated and distinguished themselves in the oper-
ations in Mexican waters: Lt. R. C. Saufley,
Ensigns M. L. Stolz and W. D. Lamont.

Captain W. Irving Chambers having retired,
Captain Mark L. Bristol was appointed in
charge of the Office of Naval Aeronautics, as
director of Naval Aeronautics; Lieut. John H.
Towers was sent to London, England as assist-
ant naval attache, and the number of aviators
was again increased, but on account of the
shortage of personnel in the Navy, it was impos-
sible to assign to aeronautic duty the number of
officers and men which the Department felt
should be assigned.

Owing to lack of appropriations, the aero-
nautic station at Pensacola was operated on a
very limited basis until 1916, the work being
further delayed by a succession of storms, which
wrecked the tent hangars, buildings, aeroplanes,
and equipment. Another storm on July 5,
1916, found the station better, but not entirely,
prepared for it. Buildings had taken the place
of tent hangars, but the storm demolished build-
ings, aeroplanes, and run-ways. Now the
hangar doors are east to west, therefore least ex-
posed to the storms.

Navy Department Decides Against Govern-
ernment Construction of Aircraft

At the close of 1914, there was suggested in
the House of Representatives the establishment

*v*

The first hydroaeroplane of the United States Navy Aviation Section, 1911.

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

Ensign V. D. Herbster, U. S. N., making a landing in a Wright machine, after a trial flight in 1912. The Naval Academy and
station-ship llartford on the right background.

of a government factory for aircraft. Secre-
tary Daniels had the subject considered and
transmitted to the House of Representatives
under date of December 14, 1914, the follow-
ing report, which advised against the establish-
ing of a Government aeroplane factory:

December It, 1914.
From: Bureau of Construction and Repair

and Bureau of Steam Engineering.
To: Navy Department (material).

Subject : Aeroplanes.

Reference: (a) Department's memorandum, De-
cember 1«, 1914.

(1) While the initial successes in air-craft work
were attained in this country, the design and construc-
tion here on a successful scale are still in the develop-
ment stage. Foreign countries are far in advance of
our builders. The marked progress of this class of
work abroad is due mainly, if not solely, to the encour-
agement given to private manufacturers by foreign
governments. While there are only a few companies
in this country that can at present be considered as
•competent designers and builders, their number is
sufficient to stimulate competition and bring about
great improvement in design, provided there is a rea-
sonable amount of Government business in sight.
Furthermore, there are other companies that are only
awaiting the existence of sufficient business to de-
velop their ideas along the same line.

(8) While the Government has resources, includ-
ing a few officers specially trained in aeronautical-
design work, this force can at present be considered
only a nucleus and is capable of carrying on only a
very limited volume of work. It would be a tre-
mendous loss to the advancement of aeronautical
work to lose the ideas and results of private invention
and experiment.

(8) In view of the above and in view of the ex-
tremely hazardous nature of aircraft work, involving
the loss of life and property, if not designed and

manufactured with extreme care and along what ex-
perience has taught to be the safest lines, the bureaus
believe that it would be a great mistake for the De-
partment to undertake at the present time a manu-
facture of aircraft except on an experimental scale.

(4) Preparations have already been under way
for about two years looking to the design and con-
struction of an experimental machine, with a view to
developing ultimately the necessary plans, specifica-
tions and detail instructions for the manufacture of
aeroplanes, but hulls and power plants, by private
manufacturers, including shipyards, and by navy
yards in an emergency. This experimental work in-
cludes a continued series of laboratory experiments
on a large scale at the navy yard, Washington. The
preliminary work toward the experimental construc-
tion above mentioned is already in hand, and it has
been the bureau's intention to take up the manufac-
ture of such an experimental aeroplane at the Wash-
ington Navy Yard in the near future.

(5) The establishment of a Government plant for
the general manufacture of aircraft would require a
complement of officers that can ill be spared at the
present time, and not only because the Navy has a
very limited number of specially trained designers in
this class of work, but because such a plant would
call for the diversion from actual flying work of many
of the most competent operators. As stated above,
the establishment of such a plant would tend greatly
to discourage the valuable initiative and resources of
private manufacturers, who should be encouraged and
stimulated as a most valuable asset not only in the
development of aircraft but also for turning out such
craft in quantities in time of an emergency. Any
government plant which could be established in the
near future would be entirely inadequate in war time,
as aircraft would be required in large quantities in
such an emergency.

(6) It is therefore recommended that the utiliza-
tion of existing plants for aeroplane work be confined
to the construction of an aeroplane engine at one of
the navy yards, with a view to the preparation of de-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The earliest experiments in launching a hydroaeroplane, made in 1911, when the United States Navy led the world's navies in
aeronautics. Lieut. T. C. Ellyson, U. S. N'., who shared with Lieut. John H. Towers, now Lieut .-Commander Towers, the distinction
of being the earliest naval aviators, is shown at the wheel. The machine Is about to be launched on the cable. Lieutenant Towers is
shown on the left, holding one of the ropes. Augustus Post is shown below the machine, in the center. This device did not prove
practical but afforded valuable experience.

partmental plans, specifications, and manufacturing
instructions in sufficient detail for use in an emer-
gency.

(7) However, if the Department directs the es-
tablishment of a plant for the manufacture of air-
craft, it is recommended that the work be done cither
at the navy yard, Philadelphia, or the navy yard,
Norfolk, these yards having a moderate amount of
space for testing work. A considerable portion of
the necessary plant is already available at these
yards, but certain special tools would be required, some
delay would be experienced in training a special force
of mechanics, who would have to be instilled with the
supreme importance of perfect workmanship. The
approximate estimated cost of putting the shops at
one of these yards in order and establishing an air-
craft factory with a capacity of two or three ma-
chines per month is placed at $80,000. The esti-
mated cost of turning out such machines under the
present navy yard cost system is about $6000. This
does not include the cost of the commissioned person-
nel, classified employees, leave, holiday, and disability,
and certain other overhead charges not at present
included in the cost of work, and docs not include the
question of patent rights; all of these would probably
run the actual cost much above the above figures.
(Signed) Schaffer, Acting,

R. S. Griffin.

The project was again suggested in the early
part of 1915. The writer asked Secretary
Daniels for a statement, and received the fol-
lowing:

The Secretary of the Navy,
Washington,

April 27, 1915.
Dear Mr. Woodhouse:

I thank you for the newspaper clippings which you
enclosed and for your letter of the 17th instant. The
Advisory Committee on Aeronautics had not organ-
ized at the time this statement was made in the clip-
pings you were good enough to send. This Advisory
Committee, provided for as you will undoubtedly re-
call in the Naval Appropriations Bill upon my recom-
mendation, has its duties and powers defined in that
bill. It is the belief of the Department that its ad-
vice will be of very great value, within the limitations
of its functions.

The question of whether aircraft should be manu-
factured by the Navy Department is not a question
that would come before this Advisory Committee in
any way. The position of the Department was
clearly expressed in my approval of the reports of
the Bureau of Construction and Repair and the Bu-
reau of Steam Engineering, transmitted to Congress
last December. I have seen no reason to change the
position then taken. The sole desire of the Depart-
ment is to use the money appropriated by Congress
in a way that will, as rapidly as possible, make this
arm of the service as effective as possible? The Di-
rector of Naval Aeronautics and the experts at the
aeronautic station at Pensacola and our observers
abroad are giving everything regarding the improve-
ment of aircraft in the Navy their earnest attention
and consideration.

We are much gratified in the assurance we have re-

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

141

ceived from designers and constructors that they will
give us a suitable type of aircraft for the Navy, and
that it will be possible to make a rapid increase in our
aeroplane fleet without much delay.

I thank you sincerely for the deep interest you
show in our aeronautic service, and will always appre-
ciate your interest and suggestions.

With sentiments of esteem and high regard, believe

Cordially yours,

(Signed) Josephus Daniels.

me

The First United States Navy Dirigible

In 1914-15 attention was given to getting a
dirigible. Specifications were issued by the of-
fice of Naval Aeronautics on March 20, 1915.
Bids for one or two dirigibles were asked and
opened at the Navy Department in Washington
on April 20, 1915. The general specifications
required that the dirigible should be of the non-
rigid type, about 175 feet long and 50 feet high,
35 feet in diameter, with a useful load of about
2000 pounds. It was specified that the dirig-
ibles should have a speed of 25 miles an hour or

American Dirigible Balloon Syndicate, Inc., New
York, N. Y.

One machine — $41,000.00.

One machine (larger) — $45,000.00.
The Connecticut Aircraft Company, New Haven,
Conn.

One machine— $45,636.25.

Two machines — $82,215.12.
The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, Akron, Ohio.

One machine— $200,000.00.

(This bid was subject to a reduction which will make
the total cost to the Government equal to the cost of
the machine to the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
plus 50 per cent. The amount entered as the bid is
the maximum to be charged under any condition.)

Contract for one dirigible was awarded to the
Connecticut Aircraft Company.

Specifications for Hydroaeroplanes, 1915

Specifications for hydroaeroplanes were also
issued and bids for supplying three or six ma-
chines were opened on February 27, 1915. The
following bids were received :

Firms
Aircraft Company, Inc,

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3
$6,962.00 $5,142.00 $716.00

Burgess Company 6,400.00 4,325.00 280.00

Curtiss Aeroplane Co 10,500.00 7,000.00 425.00

Gallaudet Company, Inc 18,000.00

Grinnell Aeroplane Company 6,500.00 8,000.00 500.00

William C. Hurst 7,500.00 3,500.00

Peoli Aeroplane Corporation 3,100.00 3,700.00 500.00

Shaw Aeroplane Company.. 4,499.00 3,415.00 586.00

B. F. Sturtevant Co 4,325.00

Item 4 Item la Item 2a Item 3a Item 4a Remarks

^2,760.00 $7,962.00 $5,000.00 $725.00 $3,000.00 Should automatic stabiliser be

6,780.00 4,837.00 716.00 2,760.00 accepted with each aeroplane

the cost of Item 2 power plant
in each case will be reduced
$190.00.

5,350.00 4,325.00 280.00 Has inherent stability. Wire-
less outfit and lighting outfit
not included as no definite ap-
proved type is specified.
3,000.00 10,500.00 7,000.00 425.00 3,000.00 Informal— No Guarantee.

For one machine.

3,100.00 3,700.00 500.00

4,325.00

Thomas Bros. Aeroplane Co. 4,600.00 3,550.00 750.00

5,850.00 6,380.00 750.00

The Tygard Engine 14,000.00

The Wright Company 9,740.00 5,200.00 60.00

14,000.00

7,500.00 4,940.00

60.00

B. Stephens & Son 3,000.00 3,400.00 200.00

G. H. Armitage 3,800.00 4,300.00 250.00

Informal — No Guarantee.

Informal — No Guarantee.
Price does not include wire-
less and lighting outfits, but
includes fitting of such out-
fits if furnished by Govern-
ment.

Type H. S.

Type S. Prices do not in-
clude wireless or lighting out-
fits.

Price does not include wire-
less and lighting outfits.
Price does not include com-
pass, chart holder and sex-
tant.

If Sturtevant motor is fur-
nished Item 2 will be
$4,200.00.
Informal — No Guarantee.

more, and to be capable of rising 3000 feet with-
out disposing of ballast. The bids submitted
were as follows:

On September 1, 1915, an order went into ef-
fect providing that officers attached to the aero-
nautic station at Pensacola should perform ad-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

ministrative and executive duty in the upkeep
and proper maintenance of the Pensacola sta-
tion, these duties to be performed as secondary
to the aeronautical work at such time as flying
was not possible, due to unfavorable weather
conditions. This was done to give the officers
experience in navy yard administration as a
preparation for the officers who might in the
future be placed in command of shore stations.
The complete aeronautic commissioned per-
sonnel in September, 1915, was as follows:
Lieutenant Commander H. C. Mustin, U. S.
N., Naval Aviator and Commandant of the U.
S. Navy Aeronautic Station and U. S. Naval
Reservation; Lieutenant K. Whiting, U. S. N.,
Naval Aviator and Captain of the Yard; Lieu-
tenant J. H. Towers, U. S. N., on duty, Lon-
don, England, Assistant Naval Attache; Lieu-
tenant A. C. Read, Student Naval Aviator;
Lieutenant E. F. Johnson, Student Naval Avi-
ator; Lieutenant L. H. Maxfield, U. S. N., on
duty Akron, Ohio, Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Company; Lieutenant (j. g.) P. N. L. Bellin-
ger, Naval Aviator in Charge Erecting and
Test Division; Lieutenant (j. g.) R. C. Sauf-

Lkut. Alfred A. Cunningham, U.S.M.C. flying over the battle-
ship CoMMctieut in a Burgess Hydroaeroplane in 1913.

ley, Naval Aviator, in Charge Flying School;
Lieutenant (j. g.) V. D. Herbster, Naval Avi-
ator, duty Berlin, Germany, Assistant Naval
Attache; Lieutenant (j. g.) P. R. Paunack,
Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant (j. g.) F.
G, Haas, Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant
(j. g.) C. K. Bronson, Naval Aviator, Assist-
ant to Officer in Charge Erecting and Test Di-
vision; Lieutenant (j. g.) W. Capehart, Naval
Aviator, Planning Superintendent ; Lieutenant
(j- S-) W. M. Corry, Student Naval Aviator;
Lieutenant (j. g.) J. E. Norfleet, U. S. N.,
Student Naval Aviator; Lieutenant (j. g.)
Lieutenant (j. g.) G. de C. Chevalier, U. S. N.,
Naval Aviator; Inspection Duty, Marblehead,
Massachusetts; Lieutenant (j. g.) W. A. Ed-
wards, U. S. N., Student Naval Aviator and
Assistant to Captain of Yard; Lieutenant (j.
g.) E. W. Spencer, Jr., U. S. N., Student
Naval Aviator, and Assistant to Ofiicer in
Charge Erecting and Test Division ; Lieutenant
(j. g.) G. D. Murray, U. S. N., Student Naval
Aviator and Asst. to Officer in Charge, Erect-
ing and Test Division; Lieutenant (j.g.) H. T.
Bartlett, U. S. N-, Student Naval Aviator and
Assistant to Officer in Charge Motor Erecting
Shop; Lieut, (j. g.) E. O. McDonnell, U.
S. N., Student Naval Aviator, and Asst. to
Planning Superintendent; Lieut, (j. g.) H.
W. Scofield, Student Naval Aviator; First-
Lieut. A. A. Cunningham, U. S. M. C,
Student Naval Aviator and in Charge Motor
Erecting Shop; First-Lieut. B. L. Smith, U.
S. M. C, duty, Paris, France, Asst. Naval At-
tache; First Lieut. F. T. Evans, U. S. M. C,
in Charge Barracks, Building 45; Second-
Lieut. W. M. Mcllvain, U. S. M. C, Naval
Aviator on Inspection Duty, Hammondsport,
New York.

United State* Navy Experimental Wind
Tunnel

Early in 1916 there was established at the Ex-
perimental Model Basin, where warship models
are tested, a large experimental wind tunnel.
The tunnel has a section eight feet square at the
point where the models are placed for testing,
and is equipped with a 500 horse-power motor

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

One of the U. S. N. Air Scouts at Vet

uz during the li)l* expedition. V. S. N. ships shown in the distance. V. S. S. Utah's
] corps underneath in the Municipal Building.

driven fan, giving wind speeds up to seventy-
five miles an hour.

Specifications for Seaplanes, 1916

In August, 1916, the Navy Department is-
sued specifications and asked bids for supply-
ing three, six, nine, and twelve aeroplanes and
power plants. The bids were opened on Sep-
tember 5, 1 91 6. The performance required was
as follows:

Maximum Speed — Not less than 52.1 knots (60
miles per hour, nor more than 60.7 knots (70 miles)
per hour.

Minimum Speed — Not more than 84.7 knots (40
miles) per hour.

Climb — 2500 feet in first ten minutes from surface.

Landing — Not over 84.7 knots (40 miles) per hour.

Radius — i hours with full power.

Fly in wind of 30.4 knots (35 miles) per hour.
Drift in wind of 21.7 knots (25 miles) per hour.
Get-away and land in wind of 21.7 knots (25 miles)
per hour.

United States Navy Experimental Seaplane

During the summer of 1915 naval construc-
tion, H. C. Richardson designed a large twin-
motored seaplane. On October 27, 1915, Sec-
retary Daniels signed an order for the construc-
tion of this seaplane and it was built at the
Washington navy yard.

Act Increasing Pay of Naval Aviators

The act granting special pay and allowances
to officers of the Navy and Marine Corps de-
tailed to aviation duty which became a law in
1915 is as follows:

144

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Hereafter officers of the Navy and Marine Corps
appointed student and naval aviators, while lawfully
detailed for duty involving actual flying in aircraft,
including balloons, dirigibles, and aeroplanes, shall
receive the pay and allowances of their rank and serv-
ice plus 35 per centum increase thereof; and those
officers who have heretofore qualified or may hereafter
qualify, as naval aviators, under such rules and regu-
lations as have been or may be prescribed by the Sec-
retary of the Navy, shall, while lawfully detailed for
duty involving actual flying in air craft, receive the
pay and allowances of their rank and service plus fifty
per centum increase thereof. Hereafter enlisted men
of the Navy or Marine Corps, while detailed for duty
involving actual flying in air craft, shall receive the
pay, and the permanent additions thereto, including
allowances, of their rating and service, or rank and
service as the case may be, plus fifty per centum in-
crease thereof: Provided, That not more than a
yearly average of 48 officers and 96 enlisted men of
the Navy, and 12 officers and 24 enlisted men of the
Marine Corps, detailed for duty involving actual fly-
ing in air craft, shall receive any increase in pay while
on duty involving actual flying in air craft, nor shall
any officer in the Navy senior in rank to lieutenant
commander, nor any officer in the Marine Corps senior
in rank to major, receive any increase in pay or allow-
ances by reason of such detail or duty.

In the event of the death of an officer or enlisted
man of the Navy or Marine Corps from wounds or dis-
ease, the result of an aviation accident, not the result
of his own misconduct, received while engaged in
actual flying in or in handling air craft, the gratuity
to be paid under the provisions of the Act approved
Aug. 22, 1912, entitled "An Act making appropria-
tions for the naval service for the fiscal year ending
June 80, 1918, and for other purposes" shall be an
amount equal to one year's pay at the rate received by
such officer or enlisted man at the time of the accident
resulting in his death. In all cases where an officer or
enlisted man of the Navy or Marine Corps dies, or
where an enlisted man of the Navy or Marine Corps
is disabled by reason of an injury received or disease
contracted- in line of duty, the result of an aviation
accident, received while employed in actual flying in or
in handling air craft, the amount of pension allowed
shall be double that authorized to be paid should death
or the disability have occurred by reason of an injury
received or disease contracted in line of duty, not the
result of an aviation accident.

All Acts or parts of Acts in so far as they are in-
consistent with the provisions of this Act are hereby
repealed.

During 1916, the Navy Department placed
contracts for the following seaplanes and kite
balloons :

NameR of Companies Number
Aeromarine Plane and Mo-
tor Co

The Burgess Co

Curtiss Aeroplane Co -

Gallaudet Aircraft Corpora-
tion

Goodyear Tire and Rubber
Co

3

6

9

1

30

Type

100 h.p. Tractors.

125 h.p. Tractors.

100 h.p. Pushers.

2-100 h.p. Twin Tractor.

100 h.p. Tractors.

1 300 h.p. Twin Tractor.

...{

Standard Aeroplane Corpn

The Sturtevant Aeroplane
Co

3 Kite Balloons.

4 125 h.p. Tractors.
1 2-135 h.p. Twin Tractor.
6 140 h.p. Tractors.
6 145 h.p. Tractors.

an. T3 * i r^ f 3 135 n P- Tractors.

Thomas Bros. Aeroplane Co.. | ,, , M 35 h.p. Twin Tractors.

On December 1, 1916, Captain J. S. McKean,
in charge of aviation in the Navy, stated to the
Committee on Naval Aeronautics of the House
of Representatives, that on that date the aero-
nautic equipment of the United States Navy-
was as follows :

There are in use at the Pensacola Aeronautic Sta-
tion the following: Aeroplanes, 12; lighter-than-air
craft, 2; on board the North Carolina, 12; ready
for service on board the Washington — she went to
sea without getting them and they are at Portsmouth,
New York, awaiting her return, 5; on board the
Nevada, 1 kite balloon; on board the Oklahoma, 1
kite balloon.

The report to Congress dated December 1,
1916, of Secretary Daniels made the following
statement giving the number of naval officers,
officers of the Marine Corps, officers of the
Coast Guard and officers of the Naval Militia
under training, as follows :

The first session of the Sixty-fourth Congress au-
thorized the admission of civilians into the Naval Fiv-
ing Corps. Some of the most expert aviators in Eu-
rope are young men who have the requisite quality of
skill and daring needed as scouts of the air. They
were neither Navy or Army officers. This country is
now to utilize men of this gift in its Naval Flying
Corps, in addition to the classes of educated and
trained officers who go into this branch of the service.
This training is now being extended to officers and men
of the Naval Militia and the Coast Guard. There
are at present at the Pensacola Aviation Station
nine officers qualified as naval aviators and sixteen
officers under instruction. A new class consisting of
twelve naval officers, eighty men, four marine officers
and sixteen men, four Naval Militia officers and
sixteen men and two Coast Guard officers and eight
men is now about to be sent to the station. There
are now also two marine officers receiving instruc-
tion in land machine flying at the Army School
at San Diego, California. Qualified officers for aero-

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

145

nautic work at sea from ships and for inspection duty
on shore are continually required, and this demand is
continually increasing. The supply of officers to be
trained must be maintained and the rate of supply
must be increased to meet the increasing demand.

Appropriations and Expenditures for Naval

Aeronautics

The expenditures for naval aeronautics dur-
ing the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912,
amounted to $24,532.79; for 1913, $56,032.90;
for 1914, $194,492.46; for 1915, $219,429.20;
for 1916 — out of the million dollar appropria-
tion allowed — there was expended $684,679.28 ;
for 1917 there was appropriated $3,500,000 for
aeronautics and $420,000 for the aeronautic sta-
tion at Pensacola. The provision for aviation
in the Naval Bill for the fiscal year ending 1917
was as follows:

"For aviation, to be expended under the di-
rection of the Secretary of the Navy for procur-
ing, producing, constructing, operating, pre-
serving, storing, and handling aircraft, including
dirigibles, and appurtenances, maintenance of
aircraft stations and experimental work in de-
velopment of aviation for naval purposes, $3,-
500,000: Provided, That the sum to be paid
out of this appropriation under the direction of
the Secretary of the Navy for drafting, clerical,
inspection, and messenger service for aircraft
stations shall not exceed $25,000.

The part of the Naval Bill which became a
law in 1916 providing for the extension of the
Naval Flying Corps to include civilians reads as
follows :

The Naval Flying Corps shall be composed of one
hundred and fifty officers and three hundred and fifty
enlisted men, detailed, appointed, commissioned, en-
listed, and distributed in the various grades, ranks,
and ratings of the Navy and Marine Corps as here-
after provided. The said number of officers, student
flyers, and enlisted men shall be in addition to the
total number of officers and enlisted men which is now
or may hereafter be provided by law for the other
branches of the naval service.

The number of officers detailed to duty in aircraft
involving actual flying in any one year shall be in
accordance with the requirements of the Air Service
as determined bv the Secretary of the Navy: Pro-
vided, That the officers so detailed from the line of the
Navy and from the Marine Corps shall not exceed

the total number herein prescribed* for the Naval Fly-
ing Corps: Provided further, That the proportion
of line officers of the Navy and of the Marine Corps
thus detailed shall be the same as the proportion es-
tablished for the regular service: And provided fur-
ther, That the student flyers hereinafter provided for
shall be in addition to the officers and enlisted men
comprising the Naval Flying Corps.

The officers detailed and the enlisted men of the
Naval Flying Corps shall receive the same pay and
allowances that are now provided by law for officers
and enlisted men of the same grade or rank and
rating in the Navy and Marine Corps detailed to duty
with aircraft involving actual flying.

The Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized to
appoint annually in the line of the Navy and the
Marine Corps for a period of two years following the
passage of this Act, in order to merit as determined
by such competitive examinations as he may pre-
scribe, fifteen acting ensigns or acting second lieu-
tenants for the performance of aeronautic duties only.
Persons so appointed must be citizens of the United
States, and may be appointed from warrant officers
or enlisted men of the naval service or from civil life,
and must, at the time of appointment, be not less than
eighteen or more than twenty-four years of age:
Provided, That no person shall be so appointed until
he has been found physically qualified by a board of
medical officers of the Navy for the performance of
the duties required: Provided further, That the
number of such appointments to the line of the Navy
and of the Marine Corps shall be in the proportion
decided for the regular services. Such appointments
shall be for a probationary period of three years
and may be revoked at any time by the Secretary of
the Navy.

Such acting ensigns and acting second lieutenants
shall be detailed to duty in the Naval Flying Corps
in aircraft involving actual flying.

Such acting ensigns of the Navy and acting second
lieutenants of the Marine Corps shall, upon comple-
tion of the probationary period of three years, be ap-
pointed acting lieutenants of the junior grade, or act-
ing first lieutenants, respectively, by the Secretary
of the Navy for the performance of aeronautic duties
only, after satisfactorily passing such examinations
as he may prescribe, and after having been recom-
mended for promotion by the examining board and
found physically qualified by a board of medical of-
ficers of the Navy. Such appointments shall be for a
probationary period of four years and may be re-
voked at any time bv the Secretary of the Navy.

Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants may elect to qualify for aeronautic
duty only or to qualify for all the duties of officers
of the same grade in the Navy and in the Marine
Corps, respectively. Those officers who elect to qual-

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Officers in the V. S. Navy Aeronautical Establishment, Fall of 191*. Standing, left to right: Lieutenant Coin ma ruler H. C.
Mustin, in Charge, U. S. Navy Aeronautic Station, Pensacola, Florida; Lieutenant N. P. L. Bellinger, Lieutenant R. C. SauHey,
Captain Mark L. Bristol, in Charge of Aeronautics, Naw Department, Washington; Lieutenant W. M. Mcllvaln, V. S. M. C;
Lieutenant B. L. Smith, U. S. M. C. Sitting, left to right; Lieutenant V. D. Hcrbster, Ensign G. de Chevalier, Ensign M. L.
Stolz. Lieutenant John H. Towers was absent on duty when this photo was taken.

ify for aeronautic duty only shall be detailed to duty
in the Naval Flying Corps involving actual flying in
aircraft. Those officers who elect to qualify for the
regular duties of their grade shall be detailed to duty
in the regular service for at least two years to allow
them to prepare for such qualification.

Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants who have elected to qualify for aero-
nautic duty only shall, upon completion of the pro-
bationary period of four years, be commissioned in
the grade of lieutenant of the line of the Navy or
captain of the Marine Corps for aeronautic duties
only, after satisfactorily passing such competitive
examination as may be prescribed by the Secretary of
the Navy to determine their moral, physical, and pro-
fessional qualifications for such commissions and the
order of rank in which they shall be commissioned.
Such lieutenants for aeronautic duty only shall be
borne on the list as extra numbers, taking rank with
and next after officers of the same date of eommis-

Such acting lieutenants (junior grade) and acting
first lieutenants who have elected to qualifv for the
regular duties of the line of the Navy and of the
Marine Corps, respectively, shall, upon completion of
the probationary period of four years, two years of
which shall have been on such regular duties, be com-

missioned in the grade of lieutenant of the line of the
Navy and captain of the Marine Corps, after passing
satisfactorily such competitive examinations as may-
be prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy to deter-
mine their moral, physical, and professional qualifi-
cations for such commissions and to determine the
order of rank in which they shall be commissioned.
Such lieutenants of the line of the Navy and captains
of the Marine Corps will be borne upon the lists of
their respective corps as extra numbers, taking rank
with and next after officers of the regular services of
the same date of commissions.

Acting lieutenants (junior grade) of the line of the
Navy for aeronautic duties only and acting first lieu-
tenants of the Marine Corps for aeronautic duty only
who have completed the probationary period of four
years may, upon examination for commissions to the
next higher grade, if recommended by the board of
examination, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Fly-
ing Corps and commissioned in the same grade or the
next higher grade as may be recommended in accord-
ance with their qualifications as determined by the
examination: Provided, That at any time during
such probationary period any such officer can, upon
his own request, if his record warrants it, be trans-
ferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps and com-
missioned in the acting grade he then holds. Any

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

147

officer of the Naval Flying Corps holding an appoint-
ment of student flyer or acting ensign, second lieuten-
ant, lieutenant (junior grade), or first lieutenant,
who, upon examination for promotion, is found not
qualified shall, if not recommended by the examining
board for transfer to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps, be honorably discharged from the naval serv-
ice.

Officers commissioned for aeronautic duty only
shall be eligible for advancement to the higher grades,
not above captain in the Navy or colonel in the Ma-
rine Corps, in the same manner as other officers whose
employment is not so restricted, except that they shall
be eligible to promotion without restriction as to sea
duty, and their professional examinations shall be re-
stricted to the duty to which personally assigned:
Provided, That any such officer must serve at least
three years in any grade before being eligible to pro-
motion to the next higher grade.

Nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to pre-
vent the detail of officers and enlisted men of other
branches of the Navy as student aviators or student
airmen in such numbers as the needs of the service
may require.

Such officers and enlisted men, while detailed as stu-
dent aviators, and student airmen involving actually
flying in aircraft, shall receive the same pay and al-
lowances that are now provided by law for officers
and enlisted men of the same grade or rank and rating
in the Navy detailed for duty with aircraft.

The Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized to
appoint annually for a period of four years, from en-

listed men of the naval service, or from citizens of the
United States in civil life, not to exceed thirty stu-
dent flyers for instruction and training in aeronautics
who shall receive the same pay and allowances as mid-
shipmen at the United States Naval Academy : Pro-
vided, That persons so appointed must, .at the time of
appointment, be not less than seventeen or more than
twenty-one years of age: Provided further. That
no person shall be appointed a student flyer until he
shall have qualified therefor by such examination as
may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy.

The appointment of student flyers shall continue in
force for two years, unless sooner revoked by the Sec-
retary of the Navy, in his discretion, and at the end
of such period student flyers shall be examined for
qualification as qualified aviators: Provided, That
if such student flyers are not qualified, their appoint-
ment will be revoked, or, if recommended by the ex-
amining board, they shall be transferred to the Naval
Reserve Flying Corps and commissioned as ensigns
therein.

Student flyers shall, after receiving a certificate of
qualification as an aviator for actual flying in air-
craft, rank with midshipmen and shall receive the
same pay and allowances as midshipmen, plus fifty
per centum thereof: Provided, That student flyers
who have qualified as aviators under the provisions of
this Act shall be commissioned acting ensigns for
aeronautic duties only, after three years' service:
Provided further. That they shall have been examined
by a board of officers of the Naval Flying Corps to
determine by a competitive examination prescribed by

Pensacola, Florida, the Navy's

only aeronautical station, photographed from a
hangars are shown in the center.

i 1915. The aeroplane tent

148

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

the Secretary of the Navy their moral, physical, and
professional fitness and the order of rank in which
they shall be commissioned: And provided further,
That any student flyer qualified as an aviator may at
any time, in the discretion of the Secretary of the
Navy, if his record warrants it, at his own request,
be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps and
be commissioned as ensign therein: And provided
further, That student flyers not considered qualified
for commissions as acting ensigns for aeronautic du-
ties only may, upon recommendation of the examining
board, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps and be commissioned as ensigns therein.

The Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized to
established aeronautic schools for the instruction and
training of student flyers and prescribe the course of
instruction and qualifications for certificate of gradu-
ation as a qualified aviator.

Nothing in this or any other Act shall be so con-
strued as to prevent the temporary detail of officers
and enlisted men of any branch of the Navy for duty
with aircraft.

In the event of the death of an officer or enlisted
man or student flyer of the Naval Flying Corps from
wounds or disease, the result of an aviation accident,
not the result of his own misconduct, received while
engaged in actual flying in or in handling aircraft, the
gratuity to be paid under the provisions of the Act
approved August twenty-second, nineteen hundred
and twelve, entitled "An Act making appropriations
for the naval service for the fiscal year ending June
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and thirteen, and for other
purposes," shall be an amount equal to one year's
pay at the rate received by such officer or enlisted
man or student flyer at the time of the accident re-
sulting in his death. In all cases where an officer or
enlisted man or student flyer of the Navy or Marine
Corps dies, or where a student flyer or an enlisted
man of the Navy or Marine Corps is disabled by rea-
son of any injury received or disease contracted in
line of duty, the result of an aviation accident, re-
ceived while employed in actual flying in or in han-

dling aircraft, the amount of pension allowed shall be
double that authorized to be paid should death or the
disability have occurred by reason of an injury re-
ceived or disease contracted in line of duty not the
result of an aviation accident.

Student flyers and the acting ensigns and acting
lieutenants (junior grade) and acting second and first
lieutenants for aeronautic duties only provided for
herein shall be subject to the laws and regulations and
orders for the government of the Navy, but shall not
be entitled to retirement or retired pay.

The enlisted personnel of the Naval Flying Corps
shall be distributed by the Secretary of the Navy in
the various ratings as now obtain in the Navy in so
far as such ratings are applicable to duties connected
with aircraft.

Within the first two years after the passage of this
Act enlisted men may be transferred from other
branches of the Naval Service to the Naval Flying
Corps, under regulations established by the Secretary
of the Navy governing such transfer and the qualifi-
cations for this corps: Provided, That the number
so transferred shall not exceed one-half the total num-
ber of enlisted men allowed by this Act.

The Secretary of the Navy shall establish regula-
tions governing the term of enlistment, the qualifica-
tions, and advancement of the enlisted men of the
Flying Corps.

Any enlisted man who passes satisfactorily the pre-
scribed examination and is recommended by a board
of officers may be appointed a student flyer as herein
provided.

Navy Orders Sixteen Coast Patrol Dirigible*

On February 24, 1917, the Department issued
specifications for dirigibles and asked for bids,
which were opened on March 6th. Sixteen
dirigibles were ordered under these bids as fol-
lows :

The Curtiss Aeroplane Company of Buffalo

Flying officers and staff officers at Pensacola in 1915,

UNITED STATES NAVY AERONAUTICS

tjfo

{%•*■* \/;

(jaA&I^** *'^***-'

Enlisted personnel United States Navy Aero Stntion ut Pensacola in 1915.

was awarded three for a total price of $122,250;
the Connecticut Aircraft Company, New
Haven, two for a total price of $84,000; the
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Akron,
Ohio, nine for a total price of $860,000 ; and the
B. F. Goodrich Company, of Akron, two, at a
price for both of $83,000."

The specifications for the Coast Patrol dirig-
ibles was given in the chapter on "Naval Dirig-
ibles."

In the early part of 1917, the War and Navy
Departments decided to combine efforts to get
large dirigibles, the work to be started imme-
diately on the first airship of that type.

Officers in Charge of Naval Aeronautics

On January 13, 1917, Lieutenant-Com-
mander Henry C. Mustin, who had been in
charge of the Pensacola Aeronautic Station for
over two years was succeeded by Captain Joseph
L. Jayne.

The administration of the Office of Aeronau-
tics in the Bureau of Operation on May 15,
1917, was in charge of Captain J. S. McKean
and Lieutenant-Commander John II. Towers.
The advisory staff in aeronautics of Chief Naval
Constructor D. W. Taylor, the head of the
Bureau of Construction and Repair was as fol-
lows: Naval Constructor H. C. Richardson,
at the Pensacola station; Naval Constructor
George C. Westervelt, supervising the construc-
tion of the navy aeroplanes; assistant naval
Constructor J. C. Hunsaeker, in charge of de-

sign specifications and contracts; and Dr. Al-
bert Francis Zahm, in charge of wind tunnel and
research work.

The following United States Navy officers
have been awarded the Aero Club of America's
medal of merit:

1914 AWARDS

Lieut. Commander H. C. Mustin, U. S. N.,
commanding Aeronautic ship Mississippi in the
Mexican Expedition.

Lieut. R. C. Saufley, U. S. N, Air Pilot
and Observer, Mexican Expedition,

Ensign M. L. Stolz, U. S. N., Air Pilot and
Observer, Mexican Expedition.

Ensign W. D. La Mont, U. S. N., Air Pilot
and Observer, Mexican Expedition.

1915 AWARDS

Lieut. P. N. L. Bellinger, U. S. N. For
breaking American Hydroaeroplane Altitude
Record. Height attained 10,000 feet.

Lieut. Warren G. Child, U. S. N. In recog-
nition of excellent work in developing machinery
for aircraft.

Lieut. Jerome C. Hunsaker, U. S. N. In
recognition of his excellent work in aeronautical
engineering.

Commander Henry C. Mustin, IT. S. N.
For being the first to make a flight from the
North Carolina on the new launching device.

Holden C. Richardson, Naval Constructor,
U. S. N. In recognition of achievements in de-
signing aeroplanes and aeroplane floats.

150

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Lieut. R. C. Saufley, U. S. N. For twice
breaking American Hydroaeroplane Altitude
Record in one year, attaining height of 11,975
feet.

U. S. Naval Experimental Wind Tunnel

The Experimental Wind Tunnel, which the
United States Navy Department established in
the Washington Navy Yard at the Experi-
mental Model Basin, where warship models are
tested, has a section eight feet square at the
point where the models are placed for testing.
In addition to the advantage gained by the size,
it is possible with the 500-horse-power, motor-
driven fan to get wind speeds up to 75 miles
an hour.

The tunnel consists of a closed circuit shaped
like the link of a chain, as shown in Figure 1.
The 500-horse-power top horizontal dis-
charge fan of the corrugated paddle type,
with an inlet diameter of 11 feet, 2 inches,
and a discharge duct 7 feet, 6 inches by
9 feet, is placed at one end of the link. At
the other end, where the air straightens out
before flowing through the experimental cham-
ber, are the baffles, which are necessary to
remove the eddies and to control the uniform-
ity of the speed. These baffles consist of
64 cells, each 1 foot square and 8 feet long.
Each cell is provided with its own damper, so
that the velocity of the air in any one section
may be controlled. At the experimental cham-
ber in the vicinity where aeroplane wings or
models are tested the maximum variation from
uniform flow is about 2 per cent. The tunnel
is built of wood, with frames spaced about three
feet on centers placed outside and sheathed on
the inside with %-inch tongued and grooved
sheathing laid in two thicknesses in the direc-
tion of the air current, and with building paper
placed between the two layers. The necessary
curvature is obtained by bending the sheathing,
the whole of which is blind nailed.

The fan is driven by a 250-volt, 500-horse-
power, direct current motor, arranged for
operation on the Ward-Leonard system. The
motor also has auxiliary field control, so that
any desired speed up to about 200 revolutions
per minute, which corresponds to a wind speed

of 75 miles an hour, may be obtained. At the
discharge side of the fan are located 12 pitot
tubes which lead to an integrating manometer
which gives the average velocity of discharge.
This velocity has been calibrated against the
velocity obtained at the section in the experi-
mental chamber where the aeroplane or other
model is placed, so that any desired velocity
may be obtained at that point with precision
without having any pitot tubes or obstructions
other than the model being tested. In other
words, by calibration the velocity of discharge
may be found, and this bears a certain constant
ratio to the velocity at the experimental section.
Among recent investigations of interest
made at the Wind Tunnel was the determina-
tion of the coefficient of air friction for various
aeroplane and balloon fabrics. Tests have
been made on the new dirigible building for the
Navy Department and on models of naval
aeroplanes both building and projected. A
number of tests have also been made for private
concerns. In carrying out experiments for
private parties the same practice is followed as
in the case of tests of ship models; that is, the
actual cost of doing the work is charged in each
case. On account of the large size of the tun-
nel it is possible to test comparatively large
models.

The Aeronautic Needs of the United

States Navy

On February 21, 1916, Captain Mark L.
Bristol, the Director of Naval Aeronautics, ap-
peared before the House Committtee on Naval
Affairs and stated that the Navy needed
$20,000,000 for aeronautics, $13,600,000 of
which was required immediately. The fleet
needed, he said, 82 aeroplanes, 5 dirigibles, and
41 kite balloons. In addition to the fleet equip-
ment there were needed 120 aeroplanes, 15
dirigibles, and 15 kite balloons to be operated
from the fifteen naval shore stations under the
patrol system. We know to-day that Captain
Bristol's estimate was most conservative and
the one general regret is that Congress allowed
only $3,500,000 that year, which was not suf-
ficient even to build up the skeleton of a sub-
stantial naval air service.

CHAPTER XXV

REGULATIONS RELATING TO ENROLLMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES NAVAL

RESERVE FLYING CORPS

CLASS 5.

Naval Reserve Flying Corps

1. Eligibility.

The following citizens of the United States shall be
eligible for membership in the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps.

(a) Officers and student flyers who have been trans-
ferred from the Naval Flying Corps to the Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps.

(6) Enlisted men of the Naval Flying Corps trans-
ferred under the same condition as enlisted men of the
Navy are transferred to the Fleet Naval Reserve.

(c) Surplus graduates of the aeronautic school
may be commissioned as ensigns in the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps and promoted therein under such regula-
tions as may be prescribed by the President.

(d) Civilians skilled in the flying of aircraft, or in
their design, building, or operation, shall be eligible
for membership in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps,
United States Naval Reserve Force.

(e) Other members of the Naval Reserve Force may
be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying Corps upon
qualification for aviation duties.

Class 5 (a). — Officers; provisional.

(a) Must furnish satisfactory evidence as to char-
acter, ability, and citizenship.

(6) Must qualify professionally for a provisional
rank before the commandant or an officer designated
by the commandant for that purpose and physically
before a medical officer of the Navy.

Class 5 (6). — Officers; confirmed.

(a) Former officers of the Naval Flying Corps who
have left the service under honorable conditions or
officers who may be transferred to the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps from the Naval Flying Corps; provi-
sional appointment not necessary.

(6) Surplus graduates of the aeronautic school
may be commissioned as ensigns in the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps; provisional appointment not neces-
sary.

(c) After three months' active service an officer may
be confirmed in his provisional rank by qualifying pro-
fessionally before a board of three officers not below
the rank of lieutenant commander and physically be-
fore a board of two medical officers of the Navy.

Class 5 (c). — Men; provisional.

(a) Must furnish satisfactory evidence as to char-
acter, ability, and citizenship.

(6) Must qualify professionally for a provisional
rating before an officer designated by the command-
ant and physically before a medical officer of the Navy,

Class 5 (d). — Men; confirmed.

(a) Men who have been honorably discharged from
the Naval Flying Corps after one or more four-year
terms of enlistment in the Navy or after a term of en-
listment during minority. No provisional rating re-
quired for this class.

(6) After three months' active service a member
may be confirmed in his provisional rating by qualify-
ing before an officer designated by the commandant for
that purpose.

Class 5 (e). — Members of this class do not enroll
and are not discharged, but are transferred from the
regular Naval Flying Corps to the Naval Reserve
Flying Corps in the same manner as men transferred
to the Fleet Naval Reserve. Their status corre-
sponds more closely to those on the retired list. Any
enlisted man of the Naval Flying Corps with 16 years'
naval service may, on the authority of the Secretary
of the Navy, upon voluntary application on the ex-
piration of his enlistment, if entitled to an honorable
discharge, be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps in the rating in which then serving.

Class 5 (f). — Any enlisted man in the Naval Flying
Corps with 20 or more years' naval service may be au-
thorized by the Secretary of the Navy, in his discre-
tion, to be transferred to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps in the same manner as in the previous case, ex-
cept that the transfer may be made at any time during
the man's current enlistment.

2. Pay of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps.

Class 5 (a). — Officers; provisional.

Annual retainer pay, $12.
(6). — Officers; confirmed.

Annual retainer pay, two months*
base pay of the corresponding
rank or grade in the Navy.

151

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TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Class 5 (c). — Men; provisional.

Annual retainer pay, $12.

Class 5 (d). — (a. and 6.) Two months' base pay
of the corresponding rate in the Navy.

Class 5 (e). — One-third of the base pay they were
receiving at the date of transfer, plus all permanent
additions thereto.

Class 5 (f). — One-half of the base pay they were
receiving at the date of transfer, plus all permanent
additions thereto.

Notes. — (a) Members of the Volunteer Naval Re-
serve enrolled for the Naval Reserve Flying Corps, or
for any other class of the Naval Reserve Force for
which qualified, receive no retainer pay or uniform
gratuity in time of peace. When on active duty they
receive the active-service pay of their rank or rating.
The only distinction between a Naval Reserve Flying
Corps Reservist and a Volunteer Naval Reservist en-
rolled for duty in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps is
the one of retainer pay and uniform gratuity in time
of peace.

(6) Members of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps
who enroll for a term of four years within four months
from the date of termination of their last term of en-
rollment and who shall have performed the minimum
amount of active service required during preceding
term of enrollment shall, for each enrollment, receive
an increase of 25 per cent, of their base retainer pay.
(Base retainer pay is two months' base pay of the
corresponding rank or rating in which serving. )

(c) When actively employed, either under provi-
sional or confirmed rank or rating, the pay of officers
and men in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps shall be
the same as the pay of officers and men in the Naval
Flying Corps on active duty of corresponding rank or
rating and of the same length of naval service.

(d) The retainer pay is in addition to the active-
service pay.

(e) Officers and men of the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps will have their retainer pay accounts carried by
the Disbursing Officer, Bureau of Supplies and Ac-
counts, Navy Department, Washington, D. C, and
will be paid quarterly by check.

(f ) Upon first reporting for active duty for train-
ing, officers receive a uniform gratuity of $50; men,
$30. This uniform gratuity is given for each enroll-
ment. Upon reporting for active service in time of
war or national emergency the uniform gratuity is
$150 for officers and $60 for men, less any previous
uniform gratuity credited during the current enroll-
ment. Should a member sever his connection with the
service without compulsion on the part of the Govern-
ment before the expiration of his term of enrollment
the amount so credited shall be deducted from any
money that may be or may become due him.

(g) Members who shall have completed 20 years
of service in the Naval Reserve Force, and who shall

have performed the minimum amount of active service
required in their class for maintaining efficiency during
each term of enrollment, shall, upon their own appli-
cation, be retired with the rank or rating held by them
at the time, and shall receive in lieu of any pay a cash
gratuity equal to the total amount of their retainer
pay during the last term of enrollment.

(7i) Pay penalties are given under paragraph 3.

3. Duties and Requirements of the Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps

(a) Three months' active duty each enrollment.
This does not apply to class A (e) and class 5 (f).

The Secretary of the Navy is authorized to assign
officers and men to active duty on application. This
also applies to men of class 5 (e) and class 5 (f ).

This service may be taken in one or more periods of
not less than three weeks.

Penalty for Noncompliance. — If a member fails to
perform, three months' active service during an enroll-
ment, he shall on reenrollment receive a retainer pay
at the rate of $12 per year until such time as he shall
have completed the three months' active service during
current enrollment.

(6) Enrolled members of the Naval Reserve Force
shall be subject to the laws and regulations for the gov-
ernment of the Navy only during such time as they
may by law be required to serve in the Navy, in ac-
cordance with their obligations, and when on active
service at their own request, as herein provided, and
when employed in authorized travel to and from such
active service in the Navy.

(c) Make such reports concerning movements and
occupations as may be required.

Penalty for Noncompliance. — Retainer pay must be
forfeited.

(d) An officer or man of the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps shall not be an officer or enlisted man in any
branch of the military service of the United States or
any State thereof, but may accept employment in any
other branch of the public service.

4. Enrollments, Transfers, Appointments, Pay
Accounts, Discipline, Orders to Active Ser-
vice, Uniform, Discharges, Records of the
Naval Reserve Flying Corps

enrollments

(a) Officers designated by the commandant of the
naval district shall enroll men who are eligible under
the rules given. Enrollments shall be for a period of
four years.

(6) Every officer enrolling a man in the Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps shall —

(1) Explain to the man that the commandant
of the naval district is the man's com-
manding officer.

ENROLLMENTS IN THE NAVAL RESERVE FLYING CORPS

153

(2) Explain that all requests shall be made to

the commandant either by letter or in per-
son.

(3) Explain that any change in address must be

promptly reported to the commandant
and disbursing officer, Bureau of Supplies
and Accounts, Navy Department, Wash-
ington, D. C.

(4) Make out and forward account cards in trip-

licate to the disbursing officer.

(c) To be given a provisional rating a man must
have the technical knowledge of the corresponding rat-
ing in the Naval Flying Corps ; to be confirmed in a
provisional rating a man must, in addition, have a fair
knowledge of naval discipline and customs; to be ad-
vanced in rating a man must have the technical knowl-
edge of the corresponding rating in the Naval Flying
Corps, and a good knowledge of naval customs and
methods.

(d) After a man is confirmed in his rating he re-
ceives retainer pay of class 5 (d). In case he does
not perform the minimum active service required in an
enrollment, upon reenrollment he shall receive the pay
of class 5 (c) until such time as he shall have com-
pleted three months' active service.

TRANSFERS

(e) Officers and student flyers may, in the discre-
tion of the Secretary of the Navy, be transferred from
the Naval Flying Corps to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps.

APPOINTMENTS

(f) Former officers of the Naval Flying Corps or
graduate of aeronautical schools may make applica-
tion for enrollment to the Bureau of Navigation, stat-
ing briefly his Naval and Naval Flying Corps service.
The procedure is as follows:

(1) Applicant applies to the Bureau of Naviga-

tion for enrollment.

(2) If the application is approved, the bureau

authorizes the applicant to report for
medical examination.

(3) If physically qualified, appointment is issued

to grade or rank last held in the Navy.
Appointment is for four years.

(4) Bureau of Navigation forwards appoint-

ment with letter of transmittal and blank
form "Acceptance of office and oath of
allegiance."

(5) Form is returned to the Bureau of Naviga-

tion properly accomplished. Pay and al-
lowance and eligibility for service begin
from date of acceptance.

(6) Orders issued to report by letter to com-

mandant of naval district.

(7) Officers are detailed for active service upon
their own request, orders for such being
issued either by the Bureau of Navigation
or the commandant of naval district.

(g) An enrolled man eligible for appointment to a
provisional rank or grade may be examined profes-
sionally by the commandant or an officer designated
by the commandant for that purpose and examined
physically before a medical officer of the Navy. The
physical requirements shall be the same as for officers
of the Naval Flying Corps.

(h) A civilian eligible for appointment to a pro-
visional rank or grade may likewise be examined.

(i) The commandant shall make recommendation to
the Bureau of Navigation for appointment to provi-
sional rank or grade. Appointments are issued by the
Bureau of Navigation, and upon receipt of "Accept-
ance and oath of office" the Bureau of Navigation will
issue orders to officers to report by letter to command-
ant of the naval district.

(j) Officers must complete not less than three
months' active service in a provisional rank or grade
to become eligible for confirmation. The command-
ant is authorized to order such eligible officers as have
been satisfactory in their provisional appointment to
appear before a board of two medical officers for
physical examination, and before a board of three
naval officers not below the rank of lieutenant com-
mander, for professional examination or confirmation
of provisional appointment. The boards shall con-
duct examinations in accordance with the depart-
ment's precepts of October 16, 1916, and subsequent
modifications which have been furnished the command-
ants in blank. Upon the receipt of records of examin-
ation in the department the commandant and candi-
dates will be notified of the department's action
thereon. The commandant is authorized to appoint
supervisory boards in special cases when it is deemed
impracticable for the candidate to appear before the
regular boards above named.

(A:) For appointment to a provisional rank the
technical requirements shall be the same as those for
an officer in the Naval Flying Corps.

(I) An officer to be confined must have, in addition
to the knowledge required for provisional appointment,
a general knowedge of the customs and discipline of
the service and a good knowledge of the tactics of the
Naval Flying Corps.

PAY ACCOUNTS

(//?) Account cards are made out in triplicate by
the commandants of naval districts, as follows:

(1) Upon enrolling or reenrolling a man in the

Naval Reserve Flying Corps.

(2) Upon the receipt of records of the men when

first enrolled.

154

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

(8) Upon appointment of an officer, under his
command to the Naval Reserve Flying
Corps.

(4) Upon receipt of records of man transferred
after 16 or 20 years' service.

(n) Account cards are sent to the disbursing officer,
Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C. Account cards may be obtained
from the supply officer, navy yard, Washington, D. C.

(o) Account cards will be made out in accordance
with instructions on the back thereof.

(p) Any change in rank or rating or any change
that would in any way stop or affect pay shall be re-
ported at once to the disbursing officer,

DISCIPLINE

(q) Members of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps
when on active service shall be subject to the discip-
line of the Navy.

RETIREMENTS

(r) Enrolled members who have completed 20 years
of service in the Naval Reserve Force and who shall
have performed the minimum amount of active service
required in their class for maintaining efficiency for
each term enrolled shall, upon their application, be
retired with the rank or rating held by them at the
time, and shall receive in lieu of any pay a cash gratu-
ity equal to the total amount of their retainer pay
during the last term of their enrollment.

ACTIVE-SERVICE ASSIGNMENTS

(*) To order a maq to active service upon his own
request the following procedure shall be followed :

(1) The commandant of a naval district issues

orders, provides transportation and sub-
sistence, and forwards enrollment and
health records, with copy of orders to the
commanding officer of the ship or station
to which the man is ordered.

(2) The commanding officer enters on his enroll-

ment record the date of reporting, the date
of detachment, and proficiency marks.
The record is handled in the same manner
as that of a regular enlisted man.
(8) The commanding officer shall, on completion
of the active service training period, as
indicated by orders, or as soon thereafter
as practicable, detach the man and pro-
cure for him transportation and subsist-
ence to his home (or other place, provided
this can be done at no greater expense)
and forward the enrollment record and

health record to the commandant of the
naval district.
(4) The pay officer of ship or station will pay
members of the Reserve Force on active
duty as are paid officers and men of the
Navy. (Active service counts from date
of detachment.) Mileage of officers or-
dered to active service shall be paid in
same way as to officers of the Navy.

UNIFORM

(t) Men in the Naval Reserve Flying Corps shall
keep on hand such part of the clothing outfit as may
be prescribed.

DISCHARGES

(u) In time of peace men shall be discharged upon
their own request or by proper authority.

RECORDS

(v) An enrollment record shall be kept in the same
manner as enlistment record and the health record used
shall be the same as the service health record, but shall
have written on the face "Naval Reserve Flying
Corps," and shall be kept in the same manner as the
service health record.

(w) During the period of active service an entry
shall be made in the health record to indicate the physi-
cal condition of the reservist. Upon completion of
active service, fitness reports shall be made out for
officers ; enrollment records of men shall be marked, and
all records shall be returned to the commandant of
the naval district.

TRANSFERS TO OTHER CLASSES OF THE NAVAL RE8ERVE

FORCE

(x) Members of the Naval Reserve Force may, upon
application, be transferred from one class to another
for which they are qualified, and may in time of war
volunteer for and be assigned to duties prescribed for
any class which they may be deemed by their com-
mandant competent to perform.

(y) Although the men of class 5 (e) and class 5 (f )
are transferred in the same manner as men of the
Fleet Naval Reserve, the entire class 5, "Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps,'' will be handled by the command-
ants of the naval districts. The records, etc., of men
in class 5 (e) and 5 (f ) will be sent to the command-
ant of the naval district instead of the commanding
officer of the recruiting district.

L. C. Palmer,
Chief of Bureau.
Navy Department, Bureau of Navigation,

Washington, D. C, November 27, 1916.

The christening of the first seaplane presented to the New York Naval Militia. Misa
Olive Whitman, the pretty daughter of Governor Whitman, of New York, holding the
bottle of champagne, saying, "I christen thee N. Y. N.-l."

CHAPTER XXVI

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

As the naval militia is practically the second
line of defense, particularly in connection with
the work of patroling the coasts — work which
has become of extreme importance since the ad-
vent of submarine warfare — it is most impor-
tant that the naval militia of the twenty-two
States and insular possessions which have naval
militia organizations should have substantial
aeronautic divisions.

The regulations provide that an aeronautic division
shall consist of two aeronautic sections and shall be
commanded by an officer of not higher rank than lieu-
tenant commander (aeronautic duties only).

(b) An aeronautic section shall consist of 28 en-
listed men, and may have 5 officers, as follows :

One lieutenant (aeronautic duties only).

Two lieutenants, junior grade (aeronautic duties
only).

Two ensigns (aeronautic duties only).

The enlisted strength may be divided as follows :
Enlisted in Naval Militia i

1 chief machinist's mate,

t machinist's mate, first

1 machinist's mate, second

8 electricians, third class

(gen.).

1 carpenter's mate, second

8 carpenter's mates, third

1 >

Aeronautic machinist, second

Aeronautic machinist, third

Aeronautic mechanic, second

Aeronautic mechanic, third

third class,
apprentice.

(c) In a locality where there are insufficient men to
form an aeronautic section and there already exists an
organized deck or engineer division, an officer and not
more than 4 enlisted men for aeronautic duty only may
be additionally enrolled in such divisions until such
time as there is a sufficient number of them to form a
separate aeronautic section.

(d) In cases where 4 additional enlisted men of the
aeronautic branch are enrolled in a deck or engineer di-
vision there will be allowed an additional ensign (aero-
nautic duties only).

(e) The following additional chief petty officers,
petty officers, and other enlisted men of the seamen
branch, artificer branch (engineer force), and special
branch will be allowed each aeronautical division :

One chief boatswain's mate.
One boatswain's mate, first class.
One yeoman, second class.
One electrician, first class (radio).
One seaman (signalman).

Section 10. (a) The minimum strength of a deck
or engineer division or a marine company shall be 40
enlisted men ; the minimum strength of an aeronautic
section shall be 1 officer and 5 enlisted men.

(b) A deck or engineer division consisting of more
than 80 enlisted men, or an aeronautic section of more
than 6 officers and 28 enlisted men may be maintained
only by permission of the Commanding Officer, Naval
Militia.

Applications from men who have had expe-
rience in aeronautics as aviators or mechanics
are especially welcomed by the naval militia
commanders.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Mail address

Connecticut

District of Columhia

State -Mail address

California Commanding Officer, California Naval

.Militia, Room 40-', Sharon Building,
55 New Montgomery Street, Sun
Francisco, Cal.
Commanding Officer, Connecticut Na-
val Militia, South Norwalk, Conn.
Commanding Officer, District of Colum-
bia Naval Militia, Water and O
Streets S.W, Washington, D. C.

Florida:

First Battalion Commanding Officer, First Battalion,

Florida Naval Militia, Key West, Flu.
Second Battalion . . . Commanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Florida Naval Militia, Jacksonville,
Fla.

Hawaii Commanding Officer, Naval Militia of

Hawaii, care Executive Chamber,
Honolulu, Hawaii.

Illinois Commanding Officer, Illinois Naval Mil-
itia, Steamship Commodore, Chicago,
111.

Louisiana Commanding Officer, Louisiana Naval

Militia, 3J6 Camp Street, New Or-
leans, La.

Maine Commanding Officer, Maine Naval Mil-
itia, 375 Fore Street, Portland, Me.

Maryland Commanding Officer, Maryland Naval

Militia, 500 Continental Building,
Baltimore, Md.

Massachusetts Commanding Officer, Massachusetts Na-
val Militia, State Armory, Fall River,
Mass.

Michigan:

First Battalion Commanding Officer, First Battalion,

Michigan Naval Militia, 718 Penob-
scot Building, Detroit, Mich.
Second Battalion ... Commanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Michigan Naval Militia, Hancock,
Mich.

Minnesota Commanding Officer, Minnesota Naval

Militia, 130 North Fifteenth Avenue
Fast, Duluth, Minn.

Missouri Commanding Officer, Missouri Naval

Militia, T09 Leclede Gas Building, St.
Louis, Mo.

Second Battalio:

Commanding Officer, First Battalion,

New Jersey Naval Militia, L". S. S.

Adams, H.'iboken, N. J.
Commanding Officer, Second Battalion,

New Jersey Naval Militia, U. S. S.

Vixen, Camden, N. J.
New York Commanding Officer, New York Naval

Militia, 3 Rector Street, New York,

N. Y.
North Carolina

Ohio:

First Battalion Commanding Officer, First Battalion,

Ohio Naval Militia, Calvin Building,
Toledo, Ohio.
Second Battalion . . . Commanding Officer, Second Battalion,
Ohio Naval Militia, 40B Federal
Building. Cleveland, Ohio.

Oregon Commanding Officer, Oregon Naval

Militia, u+0 Morgan Building, Port-
land, Oreg.

Pennsylvania Commanding Officer, Pennsylvania Na-
val Militia, 333 Walnut Street, Phil-
adelphia, Pa.

Rhode Island Commanding Officer, Rhode Island Na-
val .Militia, State Armory, Provi-
dence, It. I.

South Carolina Commanding Officer, South Carolina

Naval Militia, Charleston, S. C.

Texas Commanding Officer, Texas, Naval Mi-
litia, care Ilium Hardware Co., Gal-
veston, Tex.

Washington Commanding Officer, Washington Na-
val Militia, 732 Central Building, Se-
attle, Wash.

Development of Aeronautics In the Naval
Militia

The development of aeronautics in the Naval
Militia of the United States was started by the
Aero Club of America in 1915-10, and until the

The Aviation Division California Naval Militia. Lieut Frank Simpson, Jr., in th

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

157

end of 1916 the expenses were paid entirely by
public contributions.

Appreciating the need of supplying the
Naval Militia with trained aviators and sea-
planes, to make up for the navy's inability to
organize an adequate air service, the Aero Club
of America in 1915 took steps to develop aero-
nautics in the Naval Militia, as part of its ex-
tensive campaign for national preparedness.
The plan was approved by Secretary of the
Navy Daniels, in the following letter to Mr.
Hawley, the president of the Aero Club of
America:

My dear Mr. Hawley :

Your letter of the 18th ultimo, in regard to a public
subscription for aeronautical purposes, was duly re-
ceived.

I am greatly interested in anything that is being
done to assist in the development of aeronautics in
this country. I congratulate the Governors of the
Aero Club of America on the public spirit which has
prompted them to start a public subscription to raise
funds to further develop aeronautics in this country.

As you undoubtedly know, I am not allowed legally
to consider public subscriptions for the Government's
use. It would seem, though, that you could be of great
assistance to the Naval Militia at the present time by
obtaining aeroplanes for them by popular subscrip-
tions.

If you will apply to Captain Bristol, he will be
v «ry glad to assist you in any way that is possible so
far as he properly can. By thus conferring with him,
you will be able to work, as you have
harmony with the United States Navy.

Your idea of creating a valuable and efficient aero-
nautical reserve is an excellent one, and I am sure that
you will meet with that measure of success that your
efforts deserve.

I desire to thank you and the Governors of the
Aero Club of America, so far as the Navy Depart-
ment is concerned, for the interest taken in this sub-
ject. Sincerely yours,

(Signed) Josephus Daniels,

Secretary of the Navy.

California Naval Militia

The aeronautic section of the California
Naval Militia was started in February, 1916,
when a contribution of $1200 was made for the
purpose through the Aero Club of America.
Subsequently, Mr. Glenn L. Martin presented
a Martin biplane, and a further contribution of
$750 toward defraying the expenses of oper-
ating the machine was made to the militia
through the Aero Club of America by Mr.
Emerson McMillin.

The aeronautic section was attached to the
ninth division of the California Naval Militia,
and Ensign Frank Simpson, Jr., was put in
charge.

The aeronautic section was mustered in Feb-
ruary 3, and the four drill periods of that month
were devoted to outfitting the enlisted men and
to other details connected with the organizing
of this section.

On March 2, the roll of the aeronautic sec-
tion was taken separately for the first time.

mfm'fffi
i£ i.'i i s

vm

&&*$*£&

•<

'MmM&M&i&b* . •*

the right is shown the aeroplane presented by Mr. Glenn 1.. Martin.

158

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The five regular drill periods during the month
of March were devoted to instruction in ord-
nance, discipline, signaling, and instruction in
technical aeronautics.

The training continued through the year of
1916, including two weeks of camping with the
Second Battalion, N. M. C, on North Island,
San Diego Bay, where the members had the op-
portunity of gaining experience by contact with
the United States Army aviators who gave
them valuable advice and guidance.

At the close of 1916 when the Navy Depart-
ment made arrangement for the training of
naval militia men at the United States Naval
Aeronautic Station at Pensacola, Florida, the
following were assigned to take the course of
training from the Aeronautic Section, N. M.
C: Lieut. Frank Simpson; Samuel Kroner,
H. V. Reynolds, P. S. Ryan, J. G, Weyse.

Connecticut Naval Militia

An aviation section for the Naval Militia of
Connecticut formed at Bridgeport in February,
1916, with twenty-three men headed by Ensign
John D. Cooper.

Ensign John D. Cooper left Bridgeport,
February 28, in charge of the following men, to
report to Pensacola, Florida, for three months'
training: Warren S. Renolds, chief ma-
chinists' mate; Leon S. Moran, machinist, sec-
ond class; LeRoy Sweeney, electrician, third
class ; James V. Porto, electrician, third class.

District of Columbia Naval Militia

The first step in organizing the aviation sec-
tion for the Naval Militia of the District of Co-
lumbia was taken when Adjutant-General J. C.
Castner of the District of Columbia designated
Ensign Dean R. Van Kirk to take the free
course of training offered through the Aero
Club of America by the Curtiss Aeroplane
Company. The expenses of sending Ensign
Van Kirk to aviation school to the extent of $200
were defrayed by the National Aeroplane Fund
of the Aero Club of America.

When the Navy Department decided to give
courses of training to naval militiamen at Pen-

sacola, the following from the Naval Militia of
the District of Columbia were sent to take the
course: Ensign D. R. Van Kirk, W. H.
Boteler, W. R. Garland, A. J. Natho, H. W.
Roughly.

Illinois Naval Militia

The Naval Militia of Illinois was presented
with the use of a 100-horse-power flying boat by
Messrs. A. M. Andrews and Stuart McDonald,
in May, 1915. It was officially christened at
Chicago on May 22, Miss Mona Dunne, daugh-
ter of Governor Dunne of Illinois, acting as
sponsor. The ceremony was held at the hangar
at the foot of Washington Street, Chicago, and
was attended bv Governor Dunne, Mavor
Thompson, and by the state, militia, and city
authorities. During the succeeding summer,
training was given to six of the men in handling
and taking care of the machine. Training was
also given in observation work in connection
with the "Isle of Luzon," and the cruises of the
Naval Militia.

Illinois Naval Militia

The first steps in organizing an aviation sec-
tion for the Illinois Naval Militia were taken in
May, 1915. The following resolution gives
the details of how it started :

Whereas, On Saturday, May 22, 1915, the Illi-
nois Naval Militia launched the first hydroaeroplane
to be commissioned by a naval reserve organization of
this country since the Department of Aeronautics,
United States Navy, issued a call for volunteer avia-
tion corps, and

Whereas, This machine was placed at the service
of the local Naval Militia through the patriotism of
Mr. A. M. Andrews, and Mr. Stuart McDonald, cit-
izens of the city, at a considerably outlay on their
part, and

Whereas, This prompt response to the call of the
Navy Department has reflected great credit on the
city of Chicago and the State of Ulionis and the en-
terprise of its Naval Militia, be it therefore,

Resolved, That this act of patriotism deserves
the heartv commendation of this body and that the
City Clerk be directed to prepare a letter voicing the
sentiments of this body to be signed by the Mayor
and forwarded to Messrs. A. M. Andrews and Stuart
McDonald and officers of the Illinois Naval Reserve.

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

159

State of Illinois,
County of Cook.

I, John Siman, City Clerk of the City of Chicago,
do hereby certify that the above and foregoing is a
true and correct copy of the certain resolution
adopted by the City Council of the City of Chicago on
the twenty-fourth (24th) day of May, a.d. 1915.

I do further certify that the original of said reso-
lution is in my custody for safe-keeping and that I
am the lawful custodian of same.

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand
and affixed the corporate seal of the city of Chicago
this ninth (9th) day of June, a.d. 1915.

(Signed) John Siman,

City Clerk.

This flying boat was used in connection with
the militia cruises and for scouting operations.

Lack of funds prevented the organizing of an
aviation division in the summer of 1916.

Maine Naval Militia

The first steps to establish an aviation sec-
tion in the militia of Maine were taken under
the auspices of Rear-Admiral Robert E.
Peary in October, 1915. Details of the events
which led to starting the movement are given in
the chapter on "The Aerial Coast Patrol."

The Chamber of Commerce of Portland,
Maine, enthusiastically took up the proposition
to have an aeronautic station established near
that city. President George L. Crosman, of
the Chamber of Commerce, appointed a com-
mittee, representing the whole State, to take the
matter in charge, composed of: Hon. William
M. Ingraham, Portland; Col. Fred. N. Dow,
Portland; Hon. E. B. Winslow, Charles F.
Flagg, Col. Frederick Hale, Richard Payson,
Frank L. Rawson, Lieutenant Reuben K.
Dyer, Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary, Eagle
Island, South Harpswell; Hon. Edward W.
Hyde, Bath; Hon. Arthur Chapin, Bangor;
Col. F. E. Boothbv, Waterville; William D.
Pennell, Lewiston; Hon. Charles H. Prescott,
Saco; Prof. George T. Files, Brunswick;
George L. Crosman, President of Chamber of
Commerce, W. B. Moore, executive secretary,
Chamber of Commerce, members ex officio.

A meeting took place on November 5, at
Portland, the results of which are told in the
following letter:

The Chamber of Commerce
Portland, Maine.

My Dear Mr. Hawley:

You will probably be interested in knowing that the
question of the establishment of an aeronautical base
in Casco Bay, an Atlantic coast patrol, for the State
of Maine, was received with great interest and en-
thusiasm by about two hundred representative citizens
of this city and State at our meeting last night at the
Falmouth Hotel.

Our honored guests, Rear Admiral Peary, Henry
A. Wise Wood, Henry Woodhouse, and Elmer A.
Sperry, delivered interesting and instructive addresses
and thoroughly convinced all those present that this
is an opportune time for Portland and the State of
Maine to take the initiative in this big movement for
preparedness.

A committee of about thirty-five representative cit-
izens of the State have been selected to take charge of
the campaign for private capital necessary to install
this station.

We feel sure of the success of the project, and to
you and our guests of last evening, and to the Aero
Club of America, we owe a sincere debt of thanks.

We appreciate more than we can express the prac-
tical proposition as submitted by you, and without
a doubt your plan will be carried through to comple-
tion.

The people of Portland and the State of Maine are
a unit in this movement and as usual in all progressive
projects in this country, Maine leads.

We extend to you now and the members of your
organization a hearty invitation to be with us in a
very few months at the opening exercises of the first
aeronautical base established in the United States.

Very truly yours,

W. B. Moore,
Executive Secretary.

The committee raised the sum of $10,000 for
starting the aeronautic station, $910 of which
was contributed by the National Aeroplane
Fund of the Aero Club of America.

As an order was about to be placed for the
first seaplane in July, 1916, Ex-Senator Charles
F. Johnson of Maine advised the committee that
a bill had been introduced in both Houses pro-
viding for the establishing of a system of Aerial
coast patrol stations. Therefore it was advis-
able for the committee to wait until the Govern-
ment could establish the station. Unfortu-
nately that measure was not adopted at that
session of Congress and is at date of writing be-
ing considered by the naval committees of both
Houses of Congress.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Burgess stuplane presented to the Massachusetts Militia by the Aero Club of New England.

Massachusetts Naval Militia

Steps to organize an aviation section for the
Naval Militia of Massachusetts were first taken
in December, 1915, as the result of the com-
bined efforts of the Aero Club of America and
the Aero Club of New England, under the per-
sonal supervision of Messrs. Godfrey L. Cabot,
president of the Aero Club of New England;
Norman W. Cabot, G. Richmond Fearing,
Greely S. Curtis, Norman Merrill, and others.

Contributions of $2500 and $500 respectively
were made through the Aero Club of America
by Mr. T. Jefferson Coolidge for the training of
aviators for the Massachusetts Naval Militia
in 1915-16. The following letter from Gov-
ernor Walsh acknowledging receipt of the first
contribution shows the interest that was taken
in the newly launched movement:

Alan R. Hawley, Esq.,

President Aero Club of America,

297 Madison Avenue, New York City,

My dear President Hawley:

Your letter of December 16, with checks enclosed
amounting to $2500, received. As commander-in-
chief of the organized military forces of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts, I accept this contribution
which an undisclosed patriotic citizen lias made for
the important work of forming an aviation corps in
the militia.

Please convey to the donor and to your organiza-
tion as well, the thanks of the people of Massachu-
setts, for I am sure I voice their sentiments when I
say to you that our people are most grateful for this
evidence of your organization's interest in a great pa-
triotic work. I shall transmit the checks to the offi-

cial authorized to receive funds for the benefit of the
military organization of the State.

Yours very truly,
(Signed) David I. Walsh,

Governor.

In the early part of 1916, the Curtiss Aero-
plane Company offered through the Aero Club
of America to train an aviator from the militia
of each of the forty-eight States, and trustees
for the National Aeroplane Fund allowed $40
for the expenses of each man being sent to the
school. This sum was increased to $150 per
man when the Mexican situation grew critical,
to enable the States which did not have an ap-
propriation for this purpose to send officers to
take advantage of the free course of training.
Ensign Normal Merrill, third deck division,
naval battalion, was assigned to take the course
of training at Newport News.

Governor Walsh also authorized an aero-
nautic squad of one officer and four men to be
attached to each of the 9th and 10th deck divis-
ions, one of the divisions to operate a seaplane to
be given to the State by the Aero Club of New
England and the other to operate a private sea-
plane loaned for the purpose.

The seaplane presented by the Aero Club of
New England was officially turned over to the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts on November
8, 1916. The ceremony took place at Boston.
The presentation speech was made by Godfrey
L. Cabot, president of the Aero Club of New
England. Governor McCall accepted the ma-
chine on behalf of the State, and congratulatory
speeches were delivered by Major-General

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

161

Leonard A. Wood, U. S. A., Senator Henry
Cabot Lodge, former Governor David I. Walsh,
and Augustus Post and G. Douglas Wardrop
of the Aero Club of America. The invited
guests included the members of the Governor's
council, the mayors and city councillors of Bos-
ton and Cambridge, members of the Massa-
chusetts Legislature, Metropolitan Park Com-
missioners, United States Army and Naval in-
structors detailed to duty in New England, and
other prominent national guard, army, and
navy officers. The seaplane was built by the
Burgess Company, and is of the single pontoon
"U" type tractor. It is equipped with a Curtiss
OXX2, 100 horse-power motor.

When the navy offered to train naval militia
aviators at Pensacola, the Massachusetts militia
sent the following to take the course of train-
ing: Ensigns Godfrey L. Cabot and Norman
Merrill; Leon T. Blood, R. E. Self, C. J. Thur-
low, Harold Hudson.

At date of writing the aeronautic sections of
the Massachusetts Naval Militia are mobilized
at Marblehead under the command of Lieu-
tenant James O. Porter. The aviation officers
in order of seniority are: Lieutenant Godfrey
L. Cabot, aviation aide First Naval District;
Lieutenant J. G. F. S, Lincoln, Ensign Nor-
man W. Cabot, Ensign C. L. Flint, Ensign F.
S. Allen, Ensign F. S. Amory, Ensign G. Rich-
mond Fearing.

All of these officers have done more or less

flying, and all except Lieutenant Lincoln and
Ensigns Flint and Fearing have flown as pilots.

The senior officer in his seaplane, the Lark,
has been patroling Boston Harbor since the
declaration of war and taking pupils with him
in this work.

The most important advance so far made has
been the establishment of the Squantum School
for students in which Ensign Cabot and Ensign
Fearing have been very active and which was
turned over by the State to Capt. W. R. Ruse,
Commandant of the First Naval District as
representative of the Navy Department on
May 18, 1917.

Michigan Naval Militia

Steps to organize the aviation section for the
Naval Militia of Michigan were taken in the fall
of 1915 by the Aero Club of Michigan, Russell
A. Alger, president, with the cooperation of the
Aero Club of America. A public subscription
was started by the Aero Club of Michigan, and
through the generosity of Mr. Emerson McMil-
lin, the trustees of the Aero Club of America
contributed a bonus of 10 per cent, of the funds
raised by February 1, 1916, which amounted to
$11,800. An aeroplane of the L-W-F type,
equipped with a Thomas motor, was ordered,
which was delivered at the camp of the Michi-
gan Navai Militia at Grayling in July, 1916.
Flying took place between the dates of July 20

Miss Mo n,i Dunne
christening the Flying
Boat presented to the Il-
linois Niiviil Militia by
Messrs. Andrews and
McDonald.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

o the Michigan Militia by the Aero Club of Michigan
which was piloted by H. W. Blakely.

and August 18. On this last date a hurricane
came up suddenly and wrecked the machine.
In his report of the work of this machine, Mr.
Sidney D. Waldon, the treasurer of the Aero
Club of Michigan fund, gives the details of this
extraordinary storm and mentions how some of
the national guardsmen present who had waited
and hoped for an aeroplane for so long actually
cried over the wreck. The following are ex-
cerpts from the report:

The plane was consequently brought into shore and,
through the efforts of twenty-five or thirty men, cased
up the sand beach and roped to stakes, the machinery
and control mechanism being covered with canvas.

When it was seen that the two storms were going to
strike camp, additional stakes were driven and ropes
passed about the wing struts. A detail of signal
corps men was sent to stand by the plane through the
storm. The wind at first blew from the west in fitful
gusts. This was from off the lake and tended to
blow the plane farther on the shore. Suddenly, with-
out warning, the wind veered to the opposite point of
the compass and blew a perfect hurricane, accom-
panied by a terrific downpour, for fifteen minutes.

The intensity of the wind, coupled with the force of
the water, leveled the whole camp, broke off large
trees, rolled all the heavily loaded transport wagons
down hill with their brakes set, and brought a stream
of water knee-deep down the slope where the plane was. .
Some of the stakes pulled loose; others held, but, by
holding, hurt the wings. In the intensity of the blow,

however, the men were lifted off their feet, everything
came loose, the plane was picked up, in the air, whirled
around, and landed, bottom side up, well out from
shore.

Some of the boys in the signal corps detail were
so heartbroken, they blubbered over the wreck; but
with the passing of the storm every one pitched in to
make the best of a bad. job. First of all, they took
off all the damaged wings and steering and elevating
attachments, then they turned the fuselage right side
up and brought it to shore. They then fitted the run-
ning gear for land flying, ran the motor to make sure
it was all right and then examined the fuselage inside
and out.

The state authorities did not have the funds
with which to pay for the repairing of the plane,
and as no assistance could be obtained from the
Federal Government the aeronautic activities
of the Michigan Naval Militia were suspended
for the time being.

New Jersey Naval Militia

New Jersey was one of the first naval state
organizations to make an effort to organize an
aeronautic section. In December, 1915, Com-
mander Edward McPeters wrote to the Aero
Club of America the following letter:

Gentlemen :

It is desired to bring to the attention of the Aero
Club of America the fact that the First Battalion,

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

Naval Reserve of New Jersey, is organizing an avia-
tion section.

This has received the approval of the Navy De-
partment, and I have appointed Ensign-elect J.
Homer Stover to the immediate charge of organizing
the section.

The Division of Naval Militia Affairs of the Navy
Department has been requested to state what aero-
nautic equipment the Government would supply for
this section.

It has replied that clothing and equipment for the
enlisted men in accordance with the funds available
would be furnished.

In regard to furnishing an aeroplane or other spe-
cial equipment it is advised that "steps will be taken
to render such assistance as may be possible with the
Federal funds available."

There is, however, no definite assurance that an
aeroplane, hangar, etc., will be provided before some
remote date from that source.

Knowing the aid that the Aero Club of America,
with the assistance of the Aeroplane Fund, is giving
in the promotion of military aeronautics, it is asked
what assistance, if any, and in what form the Aero
Club of America will give this organization in its work
of obtaining an aeroplane and other necessary equip-
ment for the aeronautic section.

Very respectfully,

Edwakd McC. Peters,
Commander, N.R.N.J.

The Aero Club of America officials made an
appeal on behalf of the New Jersey Naval Re-
serve, and a hydroaeroplane was presented to
the Naval Reserve by Mr. Inglis M. Uppercu,
the president of the Aeromarine Plane & Motor

Company, who subsequently also presented an-
other training biplane.

Contributions aggregating over $1500 were
also made to the Aero Club of America to de-
fray the expenses of the upkeep and operation
of the two machines. An aviation camp was es-
tablished at Keyport, and a number of men
were given a limited amount of preliminary
training.

When the Navy Department decided to train
the naval militiamen at Fensacola, the following
were sent from the New Jersey Naval Militia
to take the course of training: Ensign W. A.
Lee, E. A. Denton, G. MacCreagh, J. C. Rolfe,
and F. Prove.

New York Naval Militia

In the early part of 1915 Commander
Charles L. Poor, of the New York Naval
Militia, wrote to President Alan R. Hawley of
the Aero Club of America for cooperation in
organizing aviation corps for the New York
Naval Militia. His letter read as follows:

First Battalion, N.M.N.Y.

U.S.S. Granite State,
U.S.S. Watp. Foot West 97th St.,

New York City.
President of the Aero Club of America.
Sir:—

It is purposed with the cooperation of the Navy
Department to organize as a part of this battalion an

One of the two aeroplanes presented to the New Jersey Naval Reserves by Mr. Inglis M. Uppercu, the president of the Aeromarine
Plane & Motor Co. The personnel of the Aviation Detachment is shown on the photograph.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Mrs. Vincent Astor breaking the champagne bottle at the christening of the Second Battalion seaplane, "N. M. N. Y. No. 1."
The christening took place on July 1, 1916, at the Second Battalion Armory, at the foot of 5-M Street, Brooklyn. Captain E. T.
Fitzgerald, commanding officer. Second Battalion, New York Naval Militia, Is shown on the right; Ensign Samuel S. Pierce on
the left; Mr. Vincent Astor on the extreme left The seaplane was of the Burgess-Dunne type, equipped with a 140 horse-power
SturtevHnt motor.

aeronautical squad, or division. It is the plan at first
to start in a small way, say with two units, of an offi-
cer and six men each, and expand as occasion offers.
It is believed that an active and efficient organization
can he built up in this way.

It seems logical that the naval militia offers the
best medium for those interested in aviation to ally
themselves to the national defense and be of service
to their country, and the Navy Department is much
interested in building up an aviation corps of volun-
teers through the Naval Militia. It is through the
Navy and Naval Reserves in Great Britain that the
volunteer aviators have been able to render such ac-
tive and valuable service.

The members of the aviation units would he en-
listed regularly in the Naval Militia, in the regular
way for three years, and would have the same obliga-
tions and same privileges as the Naval Militia, but
their drills and duties would be entirely in connection
with their special branch. At such times as the bat-
talion went afloat on a battleship on its regular ten
days* or two weeks' practice cruise, it is suggested by
the Navy Department that it would be desirable for
the aviation squad in lieu thereof to be ordered to the
Navy Aviation School for the same period and under
the same conditions of pay and so forth, to receive in-
struction there.

Knowing the strong interest of your members in

this science and believing there must be many who
would be glad to serve their country in this way, I
make this appeal for your interest and cooperation,
and ask that you make known this organization to
your members.

Yours respectfully,

Charles L. Pooh,

Commander N.M.N.Y.

Commanding First Battalion.

An appeal was made by the club on behalf
of the militia and as a result, in May, 1915, the
First Battalion was presented with a flying
boat, and the training for an officer and a me-
chanic, by Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss. Ensign Lee
H. Harris, First Battalion, Naval Militia, New
York, and a noncommissioned officer of the
First Battalion, were sent to the Curtiss Schools
at Buffalo and Hammondsport to take their
course of training. The flying boat was chris-
tened on November 3, 1915, Miss Olive Whit-
man, daughter of Governor Whitman of New
York, acting as sponsor. The ceremony was
attended by the state, city, naval militia, and
aeronautical authorities, and was a most impres-
sive event.

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

165

The sum of $1250 was also contributed for
training aviators for the New York Naval
Militia by Mr. T. Jefferson Coolidge.

The aeronautic section of the First Battalion,
Naval Militia, New York, was mustered into
the service of the State on January 17, 1916.
It consisted of one officer and eight men, and
the new Curtiss flying boat. The Hudson
River, where the headquarters of the Battalion
is located, not being a suitable location for a fly-
ing school, steps were taken to locate the school
elsewhere. Through the courtesy of Mr.
Charles Laurence, the loan of a large site of
water-front property was secured at Bay
Shore, Long Island, on the shores of the Great
South Bay, an ideal spot for seaplane work.
The progress of this unit, and its difficulties, are
told in the official report of the officer in charge,
as follows :

On May 13, 1916, the flying boat was carted out
to Bay Shore. Here it was assembled by the men of
the Aeronautic Section. On May 27, the first flight
was made. By this date the strength of the section
had been increased to two officers and fourteen men.
At this time the aeronautic section had absolutely no
equipment, and no funds with which to purchase same.
The Department of Naval Militia Affairs at Wash-
ington, had informed the N'aval Militia of the various
states that it would furnish hangars, gasolene, and
supplies to States having aeronautic units. Advan-
tage was taken of this offer, and bids secured for a
tent hangar; and gasolene, tools, and such necessary
equipment requisitioned. Due to various delays the
hangar was not received until July 8, 1916. In the
meantime, the officers and men of
the section had been reporting
at Bay Shore every Saturday
afternoon and Sunday, and in-
structions in flying had been in
progress.

There had been shipped out to
the grounds such equipment as
the battalion could furnish, con-
sisting of three small tents, cots,
blankets, mess gear, and some
tools. Lumber had been secured
with which to construct tent
floors and runway for launching
the flying boat. Upon the ar-
rival of the hangar it was
erected, the three small tents

pitched, and thus the Aeronau- Govcrnor whitman, of
tic Station, First Battalion Na- the flyii

val Militia, New York, was established. It should
be borne in mind that, as was previously mentioned,
the section had no funds with which to carry on its
work, or funds to expend in establishing comfortable
living quarters for its men. Such expenditures as
were absolutely necessary, such as carting, lumber,
and other incidental expenses, were met by funds from
the battalion, which were limited' and needed for meet-
ing its usual expenses. The funds of the battalion
were heavily drawn upon in paying the transporta-
tion of the men to and from Bay Shore for this week-
end work.

In view of the above every endeavor was made to
keep the outlay as low as possible, and the actual labor
necessary in assembling plane, erecting tents, build-
ing platforms, and numerous other necessary duties
were performed by the men of the section. The work
of trenching in log anchors to hold the hangar was
indeed a laborious task. All this work was performed
Saturday afternoons and Sundays, and therefore
covered a considerable period.

It should be mentioned that the section had added
another office to its roster, making a total strength of
three officers and fourteen men. On July 15, 1916,
the section reported at the station for a fifteen-day
tour of Federal duty, while the other members of the
battalion were away on their annual cruise. It was
intended during this tour of duty to establish a mess
and that the entire section should quarter in the tents.
This was found to he impracticable, as the quarters
were limited and the facilities for cooking and serving
proper meals almost out of the question. Therefore,
arrangements were made for some of the men to sleep
in a near-by boarding house and meals for the entire
section provided. This, however, did not prove en-
tirely satisfactory.

During the fifteen-day encampment the weather was
anything but favorable for flying. It was possible to

New York, expressing the thnnks "of the people of this State" for
ig boat presented to the naval militia of New York.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The officers of the aviation divisions of the First and Second Battalions, New York Naval I
The officers from left to right are: Lieut J. J. Carey, Ensign Samuel S. Pierce, Ensign Vil
F. E. Wysong, Ensign C. E. Ruttan.

ilitia, at Bay Shore. I-ong Island.
Astor, Lieut. L. H. Harris, Ensign

fly but six days during this period. However, during
these six days, remarkable progress was made. At
the expiration of the tour of duty one hundred flights
had been made. Flying was continued during the
month of August and into September. Due to the
motor needing a general overhauling, which would re-
quire considerable time, and the living and working
conditions not being satisfactory, as the fall ap-
proached, it was deemed advisable to discontinue the
station for the season. Up to this time a total of
one hundred and forty-four flights had been made,
totaling 1694 minutes actually in the air.

As a result of the season's work, four aviators were
trained, two of them were actually flying alone in the
boat and two were ready for their first flights alone.
Others were partly trained. Of these there were two
three-fourths finished and two were about one-half
through with their course of training.

When the Navy Department offered to train
the Naval Militia at Pensacola, in October,
1916, the following were appointed to take
the course: Lieuts. Lee H. Harris, and C.
E. Rutan; Charles B. Vandy, Ehvood H.
Neener, George C. Matteson, Charles A.
Blanchard.

The aviation section of the second Battalion,
New York Naval Militia, had its inception at
the tenth annual dinner of the Aero Club of
America, at which Commodore R. P. Forshew,
Commanding Officer of the New York Naval
Militia and Mr. Vincent Astor decided on a
plan of action. A committee was formed con-
sisting of Messrs. Vincent Astor, Aymar John-
son, F. Meredith Blagden, and Charles Lau-
rence, and through their efforts a fund was
raised for the purchase of a Burgess-Dunne sea-
plane. Ensign Vincent Astor had already
taken a course in the operation of a seaplane
and, with Ensign S. S. Pierce, a veteran avia-
tor, took charge of the aviation section of the
Second Battalion — of which Captain E. T.
Fitzgerald is the commanding officer. The sea-
plane was christened on July 1, 1916, at the
Second Battalion Armory, at the foot of 52d
Street, Brooklyn. Mrs. Vincent Astor acted as
sponsor and the ceremony was attended by the
militia, state, city, and Aero Club of America
authorities. This section camped at Bayshore

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

167

during the summer with the aviation section of
the First Battalion.

Early in 1917 the naval militia authorities,
with the cooperation of the Aero Club of
America, and the National Special Aid Society,
raised funds for the establishing of aeronautic
divisions of the militia at the Bavshore station.
By June 1 the station was running on a sub-
stantial plan. Lieutenant Commander F. R.
Lackey was placed in charge of the station
which became the training camp for the avia-
tion sections of the First, Second, Third and
Fourth Battalions.

The personnel of the aeronautic divisions and
sections of the four Battalions on June 15,
1917, was as follows:

Aeronautic Division, 1st Battalion, N. M. N. Y.
Date of organization, January 8, 1916.

Lieutenant: Harris, Lee H. Lieutenant (j.gr.) ;
Ruttan, Charles E. Ensigns: Wysong, Forrest E. ;
Wrightsman, Charles B.

Chief Machinists Mates: Peterson, Herman A.;
King, Frederick E. Machinists Mates 1st Class:
Roder, Walter L. ; Boyd, Theodore P. Machinists
Mate 2d Class: Lopez, Anthony. Electricians 3d
Class: Delaney, Charles E. ; Douglass, Kingman;
Beakirt, Robert H. ; Henry, Charles T. ; Grant,
Frank L. ; Farnham, James P.; Dalrymple, Fitzwil-
liam, Jr.; Madill, Edward J.; Freeman, Frank; Mc-
Adoo, William G., Jr. ; Reynders, John V. W. ; Mun-
son, Curtis B. ; Fleischmann, Charles ; Blossom, Fran-
cis R. ; Thomas, John C. ; Cummings, James H., Jr. ;
Evans, George B. f Jr. Carpenters Mate 1st Class:
Gorey, Frank M. Carpenters Mates 2d Class: Mc-
Enroe, Charles J.; Strong, Howard A. Carpen-
ters Mates 3d Class: Gordon, Wilmot G. ; Laughlin,
George M., 3d ; Roberts, Charles H. J. ; Guest, David
P. ; Fuller, Roswell H. ; Spencer, Dumaresq ; Wins-
low, Alan F. ; Berger, Frederick G. ; Stanley, Julian
C. ; Moseley, George C. ; Shaffer, Harvey W. ; Tevis,
Gordon B. ; Winter, Wallace, Jr. ; Eastman, Julian,
Jr. ; Taylor, James B. ; Requa, Charles P. ; Turner,
Frank B. ; Matthiessen, Conrad H., Jr. ; Atkins, Sam-
uel, W. Boatswains Mate 1st Class: Butler, Thomas
J. Electricians 1st Class Radio: Noble, James K.
Landsmen: Lamar, Lamartine V.; Humphreys, Wil-
liam H., Jr. ; Overton, John W.

Aeronautic Division, 2d Battalion, N. M. N. Y.

Date of organization. May 1, 1916.

Ensigns: Pierce, Samuel S. ; Lawrance, Charles L.
Machinists Mate 1st Class: Poor, Roger A. Ma-

chinists Mates 2d Class: Cusachs, Philip A.; White,
Lawrance G. ; Breese, James. Carpenters Mates 2d
Class: Keeler, Joseph; Cogswell, Edward D. Yeo-
man 2d Class: McCormick, Joseph F. Electricians
3d Class: Coddington, Dave H. ; Eckerson, George
D. ; Inglis, William C. ; Rumpelt, Mortimer R. ; Bren-
nan, Edward S. ; Quinlan, Joseph F. Landsmen:
Pollock, Edward S. ; Nelson, Clarence O. ; Eaton,
Alvah H. ; Johnson, Albert R. ; Lackey, Russell H. ;
Ansbro, Francis P.; Brennan, Joseph V.; Collins,
Reginald; Dollard, Oakly; Harris, Frederick M. ;
Keith, Frederick W. ; Whyte, Dave R. ; Burton,
James H. ; Naylor, Henry R. ; Cobb, George W.

Aeronautic Section, 3d Battalion, N. M. N. Y.

Ensigns, Garlock, Harold C. J. ; Hathaway, Brad-
ford G. ; Donnelley, Thorne.

Machinists Mates 2d Class: Blanchard, Charles A.
Neener, Elwood H. ; Mattison, George C. Carpen-
ters Mate 3d Class: Vandy, Charles B. Seamen 1st
Class: Schreiner, Anthony E. ; Walter, Steward W.
Apprentice Seamen: Barry, Edmund C; Saunders,
Donald W.

Aeronautic Division, 4th Battalion, N. M. N. Y.
Date of organization, May 17, 1917.

Ensigns: Verplanck, J. Bayard; Rutherford, John
M.

Chief Machinists Mate: Danner, Edward. Ma-
chinists Mate 1st Class: Smith, Nathaniel. Yeoman
2d Class: Newlin, James C, Jr. Mechanics: Rogers,
Harry; Croft, Leon E. ; Hood, John P.; Patterson,
John D. ; Lyon, R. D. ; Patterson, Z. H. ; Gates, G.
D. ; Earle, Jesse B. ; Clarke, William J.; Albertson,
Nelson; Cullen, John Frank; Brown, David L. ;
Maier, P. L. ; Needham, Charles; Watson, Paul;
Jova, John A.; Delahay, Raymond; Swartout, Van
Etten ; Sittenham, Frederick W. ; Pollard, Edward.

Oregon Naval Militia

The Oregon Naval Militia acquired a flying
boat in the fall of 1915, but it was damaged in
one of the test flights. There being no funds
available for aeronautics for the Oregon Naval
Militia, and being unable to get assistance from
the Navy Department, the Commanding officer
appealed to the Aero Club of Americar, which
sent $250 with which to pay for the repairs.
The following letter from the commanding of-
ficer gives the status of the aviation section of
the Oregon Naval Militia at that time:

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The 140 horse-power Sturtevant

! presented to the Rhode Island Militia through the Natii
a flight.

Aeroplane Fund starting fur

Portland, Oregon,
November 2, 1915.
Feom : Commanding Officer.

To: Alan R. Hawley, President, Aero Club of Amer-
ica, 297 Madison Avenue, New York.
Subject: Repairs to aeroplane.
Ref.: Your letter November 17, 1915.

1. I beg to acknowledge receipt of your letter of
November 17th with the enclosed check in favor of
the Oregon Naval Militia in the sum of $250.00, and
wish to thank you most sincerely for the assistance
you have given our organization. It is not expected
that the amount of the repairs now being made will
equal that of the check and any excess will be re-
turned.

2. It is expected that two aviators will qualify
under the rules of the Aero Club during the next month
and that immediately thereafter a full aeronautical
section will be organized as a branch of the Oregon
Naval Militia.

3. The interest shown in our organization by the
Aero Club is of great benefit to us and we shall en-
deavor to procure funds for a new machine and an
aero station along the lines laid down in your various
communications.

Very sincerely yours,
(Signed) G. F. Blair,

Oregon Xaral Militia.

Lack of funds prevented the expansion of the
aviation section of the Oregon Naval Militia in
1916.

Pennsylvania Naval Militia

On June 1, 1915, Mr. David H. McCulloch

offered the use of his two flying boats to the

Naval Militia of Pennsylvania, but the militia

could not avail itself of this offer, lacking the

funds with which to operate the machines.
Subsequently the Aero Club of America sent
at its own expense the aviator William S.
Luckey to fly for the National Guard of Penn-
sylvania at Indiana, Pennsylvania, August
7-14, inclusive, who served for that period un-
der orders from Brigadier General Albert J.
Logan, commanding second brigade.

Rhode Island Naval Militia

When the Aero Club of America started the
National Aeroplane Fund, in the early part of
1915, one of the first contributors was Mr.
George I. Scott, a retired banker, of New York
and Rhode Island, a member of the club.
Finding that the United States Navy's aero-
nautic program was hopelessly limited by law
which allowed it only a small personnel, and by
the inadequate appropriations, and realizing the
necessity, of establishing aeronautic sections in
the naval militia of States having such organiza-
tions, he started a subscription for the estab-
lishing of an aeronautic section in connection
with the militia of Rhode Island. As he was
developing the plans, the late Miss Lyra Brown
Nickerson, of Providence, Rhode Island on
October 3, 1915, subscribed $7500 to the Na-
tional Aeroplane Fund of the Aero Club of
America.

Miss Nickerson's cheek was transmitted to
Brig.-Gen. C. W. Abbott, Jr., of Rhode Is-
land on November 29, 1915, with an offer of
$500 additional to go toward defraying the ex-

NAVAL MILITIA AERONAUTICS

169

penses of operating the machine. But in the
meantime there was received $11,000 additional
in public subscriptions and the $500 was not
needed.

The aeronautic section of the Rhode Island
Militia was authorized on April 27, 1916. The
authorization is reproduced for historic pur-
poses :

STATE OF RHODE ISLAND AND PROVI-
DENCE PLANTATIONS.

The Adjutant General's Office,

Providence, April 27, 1916.
General Orders,
No. 13.

I. The provisions of General Orders, No. 153,
Navy Department, series 1915, are hereby adopted
for the Naval Militia of this State.

II. By authority of Section 34, Chapter 394 of
the Public Laws, as amended, and in conformity with
General Orders, No. 153, as above, the organization
of the Naval Militia, until further orders, will be a
battalion, consisting of one Engineer Division, 1st;
three Line Divisions, 2nd, 3rd and 4th ; and an Aero-
nautic Section.

The battalion headquarters, staff, commissioned,
warrant and enlisted and the enlisted personnel of the
Divisions will be in accordance with Sections I, II and
III, pages 8-14 inclusive. The minimum enlisted
strength of a division will be 40, maximum 60. Bat-
talion, Division and Section Commanders will conduct
the instruction of their respective commands in such a
manner as to fit their enlisted personnel for the ex-
aminations prescribed in Pars. 86 to 92, pages 44 to
83 inclusive.

By order of EMERY J. SAN SOUCI,

Lieutenant Governor,
Acting Governor and Commander-in-Chief.
CHARLES W. ABBOT, JR.,

The Adjutant General.

A Sturtevant hydroaeroplane was ordered,
which was delivered about the middle of June,
1916, and the aeronautic section of the Rhode
Island Naval Militia went to camp on July 17,
where the machine was used.

A Curtiss hydroaeroplane was also ordered
and delivered to the Rhode Island Militia in the

middle of June. But the battery which was to

»

use it went to the Mexican border before the

machine arrived, therefore could not use it to
train pilots from among its officers.

The status of the aviation section of the
Rhode Island Militia at the close of 1916 was
given in the following letter from Adjutant Ab-
bott dated December 23, 1915:

The Rhode Island fund is now about $21,500.
Twenty-five men, two of whom are qualified aviators,
and all of technical training and vocation, have en-
listed in one of our Naval Militia Law providing for an
aero section and these men will compose it. Instruc-
tion in flying has been given to a section of men in
Battery A, Field Artillery, R. I. N. G., under the di-
rection of one of its lieutenants, who owns a hydro-
aeroplane, and is a qualified aviator. Until the Leg-
islature takes action providing for maintenance of
our proposed flying plant and personnel we can take
no further definite steps, but we are hopeful that
Rhode Island will soon be able to do its part for pre-
paredness in that most vital adjunct of defense, avia-
tion.

Sincerely yours,
(Signed) Charles W. Abbot, Jr.,

Adjutant General.

When the United States Navy arranged for
the training of naval militia men at Pensacola,
the Rhode Island Naval Militia assigned the
following to take the course of training :

Ensign J. K. Park, George B. Proy, Charles
J. Whitford, Henry M. Fallon, Raymond N.
Estey.

When they completed their course the follow-
ing were assigned from the Rhode Island
Militia to take a course :

Ensign T. J. H. Pierce, W. Biehler, C. A.
Dowler, W. G. Fielder, H. H. Walsh.

Upon the declaration of war the aeronautic
section of the Rhode Island Militia was mobil-
ized at Marblehead Neck — and at date of writ-
ing is "somewhere" in the United States.

Wisconsin Naval Militia

A flying boat was presented to the Wiscon-
sin Naval Militia through the Aero Club of
America by Mr. B. R. J. Hassell on September
1, 1915. But the militia could not avail itself
of this offer, lacking the funds with which to
operate the machine.

An informal snapshot of part of the members of Aerial Coast Patrol Uni

Palm Beach, Florida.

CHAPTER XXVII
AERIAL COAST PATROL

Duties of. — Owing to the trick of circum-
stances caused by the advent of submarine war-
fare, aircraft in the great war have hardly been
used for the purposes for which they had been
assigned before the war; i.e., scouting and spot-
ting for the fleet. They have, instead, been
employed very extensively for purposes least
anticipated, as follows:

{ 1 ) To locate, and assist destroyers, trawlers
and submarine chasers in capturing or destroy-
ing hostile submarines (seaplanes, dirigibles,
and kite balloons used).

(2) To locate submerged mines and assist
trawlers in destroying mines (seaplanes, dirigi-
bles, and observation balloons used).

(3) Searching the coasts for submarine bases
(seaplanes and dirigibles used).

(4) To convoy troop and merchant ships on
coastwise trips (dirigibles used).

(5) To patrol the coasts, holding up and in-
specting doubtful ships and convoying them to
examining stations (dirigibles used).

(6) Attacking hostile ships and submarines
that may show up near the coasts, with tor-
pedoes, bombs and guns (large torpedoplanes
and large seaplanes mounting guns used).

(7) Protecting ships at sea and in ports
against attack from hostile submarines and bat-
tleships (seaplanes and dirgibles used).

(8) Communicating to incoming ships in-
formation regarding the location of mines, sub-
marines and the courses to follow to avoid dis-
asters and confusion (seaplanes and dirigibles
used) .

(9) Serving as the "eyes" of mine planters,
minimizing the time required for mine planting
(dirigibles and observation balloons used).

(10) Defending and protecting naval bases

AERIAL COAST PATROL

171

and stations from naval and aerial attacks
(armed air cruisers and combat planes used).
The aerial coast patrols have, therefore, had
most of the work to do.

of Coast Patrol

The duties of aerial coast patrol aviators are
many and varied. Thej' are epitomized in the
following notices of election of two aviators to
the Distinguished Service Order of Great
Britain under date of June 22nd, 1916:

Flight Lieut. (Acting Flight Commander) Redford
Henry Mulock, R. N. A. S.

In recognition of his services as a pilot at Dunkirk.
This officer has been constantly employed at Dunkirk
since July, 1915, and has displayed indefatigable zeal
and energy. He has on several occasions engaged
hostile aeroplanes and seaplanes, and attacked sub-
marines, and has carried out attacks on enemy air
stations, and made long-distance reconnaissances.

Lieutenant John Henrv Dalbiac, R. M. A.

In recognition of his services as an aeroplane ob-
server at Dunkirk, since February, 1915. During
the past year Lieut. Dalbiac has been continually em-
ployed in coastal reconnaissances and fighting patrols.
The Vice-Admiral Commanding the Dover Patrol, in
reporting on the work of the R. N. A. S. at Dunkirk,
lays particular emphasis on the good work done by
the observers.

The duties of the aviators connected with the
Dunkirk station are the intensive duties which
aerial coast patrol aviators have to perform un-
der the most severe conditions, since Dunkirk
is one of the most exposed stations. But this
gives a clear idea of what the duties of the
aerial coast patrol are. They have to fight the
enemy above, on, and under the water.

How to perform the different duties of the
aerial coast patrol is told in detail in different
chapters.

The establishing of aerial coast patrol service
in the United States is a most popular move-
ment in the field of national preparedness, and
thanks to the efforts of the National Aerial
Coast Patrol Commission, and the Aero Club
of America, a number of units of the aerial
coast patrol were established and either operat-
ing or under training by June 1, 1917. The
story of the founding of the Aerial Coast

Patrol Commission is told herewith by Rear-
Admiral Robert E. Peary, the chairman of the
Aerial Coast Patrol Commission.

THE UNITED STATES AERIAL
COAST PATROL

By Rear-Admiral Robert E. Peary,

Chairman of the National Aerial Coast Patrol

Commission

History has brought down to us from 600 B.C.
Themistocles' dictum, "He who commands the
sea, commands all." This dictum was true
until the advent of practical aircraft, then it
was changed and now we have the new dictum,
"He who commands the air, commands all."

From time immemorial man has sought to
protect himself from savage animals and other
equally savage men, by posting watchmen or
sentinels. At first a skin-clad, semi-apelike
figure, crouching with stone ax in the shadow of
a cave mouth where his family or tribe were
sleeping. Later armed with spear, or mounted
perhaps upon some half wild horse; and still
later clad in complete armor, peering from the
battlements of some walled city. But the
fundamental idea has been the same, that a few
could watch against the approach of danger,
that the masses might sleep or go about their
ordinary occupations in safety, and that the pos-
sessions of the individual and the wealth of the
community might be protected.

Even the birds and animals have such a sys-
tem, and perhaps primeval man obtained his
first ideas from them. In war time, these
watchers were largely increased in number, until
around every city and camp there stretched a
continuous living cordon of armed men sta-
tioned at short intervals of easy communication
with each other, each traversing continuously his
assigned beat. A living human fence to pre-
vent surprise attack.

Now, I shall try to picture herewith the mod-
ern evolution of this idea and tell you of an up-
to-date picket line around a great nation ; a plan
which links Icarus with Wright and Curtiss and
Hammond. This is the conception: a continu-
ous picket line of seaplanes off shore around our
entire coasts from Eastport, Maine, to Browns-

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TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

ville, Texas, and from San Diego, California,
to Camp Flattery, Washington, each machine
traveling back and forth — back and forth —
over its section or "beat," a winged sentinel,
forming a cordon, a continuous line of whirring
shuttles, weaving a blanket of protection around
the countrv.

History of the United States Aerial Coast

Patrol

In 1914, Captain Virginius E. Clark of the
United States Army Aviation Corps published
in the "Coast Artillery Journal" an article on
'An Aeroplane Patrol of our North Atlantic
Coast from Roanoke Sound to Portland." A
review of this article, with a sketch map, was
published in a New York paper, attracted my
attention and the page on which it appeared
went into my scrap book.

In August, 1915, accepting an invitation to
address the Portland, Maine, Rotary Club, I
spoke on "Preparedness," and suggested to the
business men composing my audience, "Might
it not be well for you to look into this, with a
view to establishing this end of such an Aerial
Coast Patrol, and have one of the nation's eyes
here in your harbor, at Flag Island, or other
suitable place?"

A few days later, the current issue of "Fly-
ing" reached me with John Hays Hammond,
Jr's., comprehensive plan for an Aero Coast
Patrol of our entire coasts — Atlantic and Pa-
cific — by a system comprising forty-four sta-
tions.

August 28, 1915, the largest newspaper in
Maine printed a half-page story containing ex-
tended extracts from the plans of both Clark
and Hammond, and a few davs later the Port-
land Chamber of Commerce wrote me, offering
its support and assistance.

September 10, 1915, Mr. Henry A. Wise
Wood visited me at Eagle Island ; we devoted a
day to a careful examination of Flag Island,
the use of which for a landing station had been
tendered to the Aero Club of America a vear
earlier, and Mr. Wood reported to Mr. Alan R.
Hawley, the president of the club, the results
of his investigations.

September 13, at my suggestion, Mayor
Ingraham, of Portland, called a conference of
leading Portland men in his office, to whom the
idea of a National Aerial Coast Patrol was pre-
sented, and the suggestion made that Portland
establish the first station of that system.
Mayor Ingraham then assigned the matter to
the Portland Chamber of Commerce, whose
President, George L. Crosman, appointed a
state-wide committee of representative men to
take the matter up.

This committee arranged a dinner in Port-
land on the 5th of November, 1915, at which
Maine senators and congressmen, two or three
ex-Governors, and the Mayor and other promi-
nent Maine citizens were present. Messrs.
Henry A. Wise Wood, Henry Woodhouse, and
Elmer A. Sperry came on from New York to
lend assistance to the movement. Portland had
hoped also to have President Hawley, but ill-
ness prevented.

At the dinner, the following telegrams of en-
dorsement were received from the President,
the Secretaries of War and Navy, whose atten-
tion had been called to the movement by Sen-
ators Johnson and Burleigh of Maine:

I join the Secretary of War and the Secretary of
the Navy in feeling a very 'great interest in the devel-
opment of aeroplane service in this country, and in
hoping that your citizens will meet with entire success
in their interesting undertaking.

Woodrow Wilson.

I assure you I am deeply interested in the develop-
ment of aeroplane service in this country, and I trust
that your citizens will meet with success in their under-
taking.

L. M. Garrison.

Experience has proven the great value of aircraft,
and every movement looking to their larger utilization
meets with the cordial sympathy of the Navy Admin-
istration.

Josephfs Daniels.

The Aero Club of America made formal offer
of ten per cent, on all sums raised by February
1, and Mr. Curtis of Marblehead offered to
build seaplanes for the Maine station at reduced
prices, and to educate two aviators.

This meeting impressed upon those present,
and through them the entire State, that the mat-

AERIAL COAST PATROL

173

ter was not a mere local proposition, but that
Maine was inaugurating a great national propo-
sition of vital importance. This dinner was
held Friday evening, November 5. On No-
vember 12, 1915, at the annual meeting of the
Aero Club a resolution was adopted that the
Aero Club concentrate its efforts on the Coast
Patrol Svstem.

Following this, and thanks to the generosity
of Mr. Emerson McMillin, who offered,
through the Aero Club of America, to give
eleven per cent, for any amounts raised up to
$500,000, the trustees of the National Aero-
plane Fund of the Aero Club of America wrote
to the Governors of all the States and the heads
of militia organizations and aero clubs, urging
them to raise funds with which to establish sta-
tions for the aerial coast patrol on water as well
as on land.

From that time on the interest in the aerial
coast patrol system grew rapidly.

As public interest increased the interest of
Congress was also aroused and senators and
congressmen who became interested proposed to
realize the plan to establish a substantial aerial
coast patrol as part of the national defense pro-
gram. In July, 1916, Senator Charles F.
Johnson and Congressman Julius Kahn intro-
duced bills in the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives respectively providing for the estab-
lishing of the Aerial Coast Patrol, under the
direction of the Navy Department, providing
an appropriation of $1,500,000 for same, but
the chairman of the committee on naval affairs
of the House of Representatives objected, stat-
ing that Congress had already given $1,500,000
more for naval aeronautics than had been asked
for in the estimates, so there was no progress
on this measure.

As the Navy Department has had no facilities
for training aviators for the Naval Reserve Fly-
ing Corps and could not supply aeroplanes and
aeronautic equipment to the Naval Militia,
neither of these two organizations were in a posi-
tion to undertake to train the numerous appli-
cants who applied for training. The National
Aerial Coast Patrol Commission has encouraged
those who could afford to pay their own expense
to form units and prepare themselves to be of

utmost use in case of a national emergency —
which came.

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1

On July 3, 1916, Mr. and Mrs. H. P. Davison
held a conference with Messrs. John Hays
Hammond, Jr., and Henry Woodhouse, re-
garding the possibilities of their two sons,
F. Trubee Davison and H. P. Davison, Jr.,
taking up aviation training. The value of the
aerial coast patrol was discussed and the Davi-
sons decided to form Aerial Coast Patrol Unit
No. 1, to consist of twelve men who were selected
from among the college friends of the Davisons
as follows: F. T. Davison, Robert A. Lovett,
John Vorys, John Farwell, 3rd; Albert Dit-
man, Wellesley Laud Brown, Artemus L.
Gates, Erl Gould, Allan Ames, C. D. Wiman,
A. D. Sturtevant, H. P. Davison, Jr.

Arrangements were made with the America
Transoceanic Company for the training of the
unit at Port Washington, and the training
began immediately, David H. McCulloch act-
ing as instructor.

In September the unit participated in the
manceuvers of the "mosquito" fleet of power
craft, which had its headquarters at the Atlantic
Yacht Club at Gravesend Bay.

As the report written at the time states, in
foggy weather members of the unit went out
to locate mines submerged at depths of eighteen
feet. Although the water was far from clear
and the haze further made conditions difficult,
everv one of the mines were located. No other
craft could have located them under these con-
ditions, and the officer in charge was so im-
pressed that when the manoeuvers were over and
the aviators had left for their base which is
located at Manhasset Bav he called on them to
come again to locate the mines, so as to save a
lengthy and tedious search for the boats.

On September 9 one of the Curtiss seaplanes
of the unit went out to look for the two torpedo
boat destroyers representing the enemy at-
tacking fleet. The fog prevented the aviators
from seeing further than six miles, and when
they were about twenty-five miles outside of
New York Harbor they were caught in a thun-

174

TEXTBOQK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

derstorm. But they located the torpedo boats,
unknown to the latter, and reported them to
the Atlantic Yacht Club.

The destroyers Flusser and Warrington left
their anchorage in Gravesend Bay in the morn-
ing and proceeded to sea. Their function was
to return over a different course in the after-
noon, the Flusser representing an advanced
screen of scout vessels and the Warrington the
main body of an attacking fleet whose objective
was New York Harbor and the battleships
Kentucky, New Jersey, and Maine at anchor in
the harbor's entrance.

The power craft of the 'mosquito" fleet put
out to reconnoiter the approaches of the harbor,

One of the flying boats of Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit
No. 1, photographed from another flying boat of the Unit.

and they were directed in their observations by
a seaplane from Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol
Unit No. 1.

Like true seamen, the members of the unit
who manned the seaplanes in both locating
mines and locating the destroyers do not wish
their names given, preferring to have the
achievements credited to the unit.

The two aviators who were caught in the
storm sighted the two destroyers and plotted
their location on their maps when the vessels
were sixty miles from Gravesend Bay. In the
meantime, there was considerable consternation
on board the vessels of the fleet regarding the
safety of the aviators.

Thomas W. Slocum's steam yacht, the
Ranger, with Lieutenant A. M. Cohen,
U. S. N., on board, was the last of the craft that
put out from the Atlantic Yacht Club to observe
the seaplane, and she carried the information to
the battleship New Jersey. Meanwhile the
Dodger II with E. S. Willard on board, and
other motor craft, sped in search of the air
scouts. The New Jersey was unable to estab-
lish radio communication with the destroyers
because of static conditions, so that the destroy-
ers could not be advised to assist in the
search.

Several steamship masters and others on
board of sturdy power craft that were hard put
to hold their course in the storm reported that
they had seen the seaplane in the storm and it
was an awe-inspiring sight to see the craft
against a scowling background of copper-col-
ored cloud banks, shot with incessant lightning
flashes. But the seaplane went on, though at
times in spasmodic jerks, when it met the squally
blasts, then it disappeared in the storm haze
which hung along the shore.

The aviators had located the torpedo boat de-
stroyers one mile from Fire Island and had
landed on the Great South Bay, close by Oak-
land Island. Immediately upon landing they
went to the nearest telephone and succeeded in
sending a telephone message, which was relayed
by the Quogue Life Saving Station to the At-
lantic Yacht Club, reading, "At 3:41 o'clock at
a height of 8100 feet, we sighted both destroyers
and then put into Oakland Island on account of
the squall."

Upon receipt of the official reports showing
the valuable work that was done by the Volun-
teer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1, the execu-
tive committee of the Aero Club of America
sent to the unit expressions of appreciation,
which said, in part :

Conditions obtaining at the time when one of your
seaplanes located the two torpedo destroyers, the
Flusser and the Warrington, make us realize that such
a thing could have happened under war conditions and
this achievement would have saved New York from
being bombarded by the enemy's fleet. Owing to the
fact that the United States Navy has only a few aero-
planes and trained aviators, in case of war the naval
aviators available would barely be sufficient to operate

AERIAL COAST PATROL

175

at one of the naval centers or in connection with one
of the squadrons of the fleet. We can conceive of the
Flusser and Warrington representing a raiding squad-
ron of an enemy's fleet dominating a strategical point
outside of New York Harbor, and the raiding squadron
having succeeded in getting near New York, screened
by the fog, and being found by one of the seaplanes
of the Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1,
thereby saving the ships at the entrance of New York
Harbor from being destroyed and New York City
from being bombarded. Your valuable work in locat-
ing mines also deserves commendation.

Throughout the Fall the unit practiced at the
New London Navy Yard and experimented in
locating mines and submarines.

Upon their return to the Yale University for
their studies the members of the unit found that
much interest had been aroused among the stu-
dents, and many applied for admission. Eight-
een more were admitted, increasing the unit to
thirty.

At the time of Germany's declaration of her
intention to prosecute a campaign of ruthless
U-boat warfare, the Davisons and all the mem-
bers and officials of the Aerial Coast Patrol
Commission and the Aerial Club of America
realized that this policy might mean the involv-
ing of this country in war, and that in such a
case there would be needed many aviators for
coast patrol duties. The thirty members of
Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1 made
plans to leave Yale University and go to
Florida to continue their training, so as to be
available and to be thoroughly trained in case of
emergency.

The report that the unit was to go to Florida
for training stirred up tremendous interest
among the students at Yale, Princeton, Colum-
bia, Harvard, and other universities, and as a
result, the unit was flooded with hundreds of
applications from college men anxious to join
the unit and to form other units.

Arrangements were made for Unit No. 1 to
go to the aviation training camp established by
Mr. Rodman Wanamaker, at West Palm
Beach. Mr. Lewis S. Thompson agreed to as-
sist the Davisons in this patriotic work, and as
Mr. H. P. Davison, Sr., could not himself go to
Florida, Mr. Thompson took charge of the gen-
eral supervision of the unit. As the demand for

training was so large, and in view of the ap-
proaching emergency, it was decided to give the
Unit a military formation, which was done, and
the members of the Unit enrolled in the United
States Naval Flying Reserve Corps. The
camp at West Palm Beach was run on a mili-
tary basis, the members of the unit getting
training in discipline, aerial gunnery, wireless,
and general aerial coast patrol work, as well as
in the operation of aeroplanes.

Mr. Henry Woodhouse presented to the
Unit, through the Aero Club of America, a
Lewis aeroplane gun, with 5000 rounds of .333
ammunition, to enable the Unit to get practical
experience with an up-to-date aeroplane gun.
The plan was to have Unit No. 1 train at West
Palm Beach until the weather permitted estab-
lishing a camp on Long Island. While the
plans for this camp were being considered, the
applications for training from college men be-
came so numerous that the patriotic people who
were contributing toward the training and
equipping of Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1
decided to extend their support so as to increase
the number of men to be trained and to estab-
lish an aerial coast patrol station at Hunting-
ton, Long Island.

The plan was submitted to the Navy Depart-
ment, and the authorities gave valuable sugges-
tions in carrying it out. Lieutenant (J. G.)
Edward O. McDonnell was assigned from the
Pensacola Aeronautic Station to supervise the
training of the unit.

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 2

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 2 was organ-
ized in April, 1917, by Messrs. Ganson G. De-
pew, Frank Goodyear, with the cooperation of
Robert A. Lovett of Unit No. 1, and the Na-
tional Aerial Coast Patrol Commission. The
Unit reported to the Curtiss School at Buffalo
for training with the following members:
Frank Goodyear, Gannon G. Depew, Ashton
T. Hawkins, Ed. De Cernea, Stephen Potter,
E. T. Smith, Percival Fuller, Seymour Knox,
Clifford Rodman, Winter Meade, Philip Allen,
John Joy Schieff elin. The address of the Unit
is 165 Summer Street, Buffalo, New York.

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TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 3

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 3 was organized
by David Clinton Backus, a Yale man, in the
middle of April, 1917, with the cooperation of
the National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission.
It reported for training to the Knapp Seaplane
station, at Mastic, on the South Shore of Long
Island, with twelve members, as follows:
Clinton D. Backus, Harold Pumpelly, William
J. Connors, Jr., Harold Howe, Thomas Dixon,
Jr., Irving Paris, Leslie Macnaughton, Dun-
can Forbes, William Hamilton Gardner, Aus-
tin Feuchtwanger, Stewart Johnson, Joseph
Knapp, John Laird, Bruce Campbell. The
address of the unit is 205 West Fifty-seventh
Street; headquarters, Knapp Seaplane Station,
Mastic, Long Island, New York.

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 4

Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 4 is being or-
ganized at date of writing by Clarence Martin,
chief officer of the aviation division, Organiza-

tion for National Defense, VIII Corps, Colum-
bia University, New York City. Other aerial
coast patrol units are under formation at date
of writing. One hundred and fifty applica-
tions for training had been received, from Co-
lumbia students and Alumni. The address of
the unit is Room 311, East Hall, Columbia
University, City of New York.

Those who went to the West Palm Beach
station for training were : F. Trubee Davison
and Henry P. Davison, Jr., Robert A. Lovett,
Albert J. Ditman, Charles Wiman, Artemus
L. Gates, Allen Ames, John V. Farwell, John
Vorys, Earl Gould, Wellesly Laud-Brown,
Reginald G. Coombe, Oliver B. James, G.
Franklin Lawrence, William Rockefeller,
Frederick Beach, Kenneth Smith, Kenneth
McKleish, Curtis Read, Bartow Read, David
Ingalls, A. D. Sturtevant, William Thompson,
Frank Lynch, Graham Brush, Henry Landon,
Samuel S. Walker, Charles Stewart, Archie
Mcllwaine.

CHAPTER XXVIII
THE EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT

In broad outlines a hydroaeroplane is a craft
having a water borne base in the form of a pon-
toon, or boat, and the organs of an aeroplane,
whereby it operates from the water as a base as
distinguished from the land, and is adapted to
travel at speed upon the surface of the water,
or fly in the air. The boat or pontoon is for
these purposes fitted with a hydroplaning bot-
tom so arranged that when under power on the
water the craft Is lifted to the surface by the
combined aeroplane and hydroplane action and
skims thereover. It may then either be op-
erated at speed without leaving the water, or,
having attained sufficiently high speed to en-
able the wings to support the entire body, rise
from the surface and fly in the air. These two
capabilities, cruising at speed and flying, ren-
der the hydroaeroplane not only of inestimable
value for naval warfare, but extremely attrac-
tive for sporting and commercial purposes.

It is, therefore, the hydro that makes the hy-
droaeroplane — which explains why the present
chapter opens with the first experiment with hy-
droplanes rather than with the first attempt to
fit an aeroplane with pontoons to keep it afloat.

The difference in principle between a hydro-
plane and a pontoon is about the same as that
between an aeroplane and an airship. The
first cuts through the water in about the same
way as an aeroplane cuts through the air, with
practically no displacement; while the second
displaces the fluid according to its bulk. The
first may attain high speed with moderate
power, while the latter requires, comparatively,
high power for moderate speed. The float
used at present is a combination of pontoon and
hydroplane; that is, the pontoon is flat-bot-
tomed, usually with an upward slope in front,
a combination that works like the hydroplane,
causes it to rise to the surface when traveling,
so that it can acquire the necessary speed for
launching in flight.

The flying boat, which was developed a year
after the hydroaeroplane had proven a success,
is essentially a boat with wings.

Experiments with hydroplanes were made
as early as forty years ago. In 1872 an en-
gineer named Froude, under the auspices of
the British Admiralty, experimented with
planes sheathed with polished metal, grouped
and inclined. This experiment was, however,
without result. The writer is indebted to Mr.
Orville Wright for pointing out that Comte de
Lambert, the well-known aviator engineer, was
the inventor of the hydroplane. In Mr.
Wright's own words: "Although suggestions
of the hydroplane idea had been made years
ago, and although Froude had made some ex-
periments without results as far back as 1872,
Comte de Lambert was the real inventor of the
hydroplane. He was the first to produce a
successful one, and all modern hydroplanes are
based upon his work. In 1897 Comte de Lam-
bert experimented with a catamaran formed of
two narrow floats, to which were attached four
transverse planes, whose inclinations could be
varied two or three degres. At a speed of ten
miles an hour, the floats were lifted entirely out
of the water and the machine glided over the
surface of the water on the four hydroplanes.
Comte de Lambert continued these experi-
ments during the following years up to 1907,
and he succeeded in increasing the speed
to thirty-four miles an hour."

The first to fit pontoons to an aeroplane was

aeroplane fitted with pontoons, 1898- 1902.

178

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

William Kress, the Austrian engineer and
father of Austro-German aviation. His test
was made in 1898-1902 as the result of forty
years of experimenting with heavier-than-air
structures, during which Kress had constructed
a number of machines, including a helicopter
and an ornithopter. The Kress was a triple
monoplane, fitted with two parallel elongated
floats, a 30-horse-power motor and two pro-
pellers. The two floats were of aluminum and
had runners, so that the apparatus could be
operated on the snow as well as on the water.
The tests took place at the Unter-Tullnerbach
docks, Austria, and gave remarkable results —
considering that the inventor had to create all
except the motor, and was handicapped by the
latter on account of its great weight. The ma-
chine traveled over the water under limited con-
trol at a speed of a fast rowboat. This ap-
paratus came to grief at the close of 1901, ad-
verse wind and a leak in one of the floats send-
ing it to the bottom of the dock. Another ex-
periment in 1902 was not concluded through
lack of funds.

In 1905-06, three of the French pioneers of
modern aviation — Ernest Archdeacon, Gabriel
Voisin, and Louis Bleriot — who experimented
with the Chanute-Wright gliders — thought,
after wrecking several machines by falls on
land, that the water surface, being elastic, would
be less dangerous to the operator, so they fitted
their gliders with pontoons. The Archdeacon
glider fitted with two boat-like floats, was first
tried on the River Seine, near Paris, on June
8, 1905. It was towed by a fast motor boat
and was piloted by Voisin. It rose to a height
of about 50 feet over a distance of 400 feet.
The Bleriot glider also towed by a motor boat
and piloted by Voisin, proved to have less sta-

An early experiment of Gabriel and Charles Voisin, June 8, 1905.

Louis Bleriot's experiment, 1906.

bility, and on July 18, 1905, being struck by a
sudden gust of wind it dove into the water and
Voisin, caught in the cage-like affair, was sub-
merged for twenty seconds. The Archdeacon
experiment ended at the close of 1905 when
Voisin left Mr. Archdeacon and formed part-
nership with Bleriot. The outcome of the
Bleriot-Voisin partnership was two hydro-
aeroplanes, one consisting of two elliptical-
shaped cells, fitted with three pairs of cylindri-
cal, sheet-metal floats, a 24-horse-power mo-
tor, and two propellers; the other was a com-
bination of the first and the Archdeacon glider,
and was fitted with improved pontoons and two
24-horse-power Antoinette motors. Nearly a
year was spent in experiments, but with little
results. The principal trouble was no doubt
the insufficient motor-power, and the fact that
the pontoons were not scientifically constructed.

Early in 1905, Professor Enrico Forlanini of
Milan, Italy, applied for a patent for a hydro-
aeroplane of his own invention. That he had a
very lucid conception of the advantages of the
hydroaeroplane is shown in the patent specifica-
tion, part of which reads as follows :

"My invention has reference to ships or ves-
sels of that kind which, instead of plowing their
way through the water, skim over the surface,
thereby offering much less resistance and as a
consequence are capable of attaining very much
higher speeds.

"Heretofore many attempts to produce an
efficient apparatus of the hydroplane type have
been made, the majority of them based upon
the phenomenon exhibited when a flat object,
such as a stone for example, is thrown in such

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT

179

a manner as to glide over the surface of the
water, rather than that of obtaining a true hy-
draulic flight. To this end it has been usual to
make use of hydroplanes arranged, for ex-
ample, in such a manner as wholly or partially
to lift the vessel out of contact with the surface
of the water when said vessel is propelled.

"The object of my invention is so to improve
such devices that their efficiency is greatly in-
creased, and one of the essential features of my
invention is that a boat constructed in accord-
ance therewith will be capable not only of skim-
ming over the surface of the water, but may be
also used as a flying machine of the aeroplane
type, and I have succeeded in constructing an
apparatus which has in practice given most sat-
isfactory results." But the inventor did not
carry his experiments in that line to a finish,
turning instead to the hydroplane, on which he
is an authority.

Further experiments with hydroplanes were
conducted in different countries, notably in
Italy by Crocco and Riccaldoni, in France by
Clement Ader, Ricochet, and Bonnemaison; in
Switzerland by the Defaux brothers; and to a
less extent by others in different countries. But
while these experiments contributed each some-
thing to the final development of hydros for
aeroplanes, the object of the experimenters was
not to develop a marine aeroplane.

In 1905, at Saint Helens, Isle of Wight,
England, Dr. F. A. Barton and Mr. F. L.
Rowson made experiments with a birdlike ap-

paratus fitted with floats. The machine had
two wings or main planes set dihedrally, ele-
vating plane in front and an empennage con-
sisting of two planes, both movable with a rud-
der. It was 86 feet long and 34 feet across
the main planes.

The pontoons were 20 feet long, 10 inches
wide, 4 inches deep, were made of a light skele-
ton framework of whitewood, the sides and bot-
tom of which were covered with three layers of
mahogany veneer glued together. The whole
pontoon was covered with canvas and var-
nished. Several towed flights were made at sea
in September, 1905. During the most success-
ful, the machine rose four feet, then the rope
broke, and in the fall the glider was damaged.
Failing to secure a suitable motor for the ma-
chine the experiments were abandoned.

In 1906-97 experiments with a large glider
fitted with pontoons were made by Israel Lud-
low, in America. Several experiments were
made with this machine towed by the naval tug
Potomac and the torpedo boat Gwinn, at
Hampton Roads, during the Jamestown Ex-
position. But the experiments were discon-
tinued, following an accident which wrecked the
glider.

The Wright Experiment

In 1907 the Wrights experimented with hy-
dros intending to develop them for use on their
flyer, and thus have a machine which would have

Louis Bleriot's last experiment on water, 1900.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Israel Ludlow's Kite towed by the L'ni

Hampton Roads, passes in front of the battleship at anchor.

permitted them always to find good landing
places in large streams.

The following quotation from the Dayton
"Daily News" for March 21, 1907, shows that
the Wright brothers had at the time a thorough
idea of the advantages offered by the water as a
field for experiments :

"The balustrades of the Third Street Bridge
were lined Thursday morning with curious
spectators, who were watching the antics of a
modern water bird. The banks of the stream
around the central point of action were also
spotted with onlookers. The object of interest
was the hydroplane, which Orville and Wilbur
Wright, inventors of the airship, were tamper-
ing with in preparation for its initial experi-
mental run.

"Although the inventors, who are being
branded as geniuses, would not state the exact
purpose of the hydroplane, it was intimated
that it is to be used in connection with their air-
ship. If it becomes possible, during a series
of experiments, to lessen the weight of the hy-
droplane, so that it can be attached to the air-
ship, a new and much sought after proposition
of aerial navigation will be solved. With the
attachment of the hydroplane to an airship, the
machine will then be complete, as it can be navi-
gated either in midair or on water.

"The present machine which is uniquely con-
structed from water boilers, an old gasoline

engine and numerous strips of wood and sheet
iron, with the water planes of copper, made its
sail down the Miami River Thursday morning
amid the encouraging cheers of the assembled
spectators.

"The machine, if the square lines were pro-
duced, would be about twelve by eight feet in
dimensions. The vehicle is built on two air
floats about twelve feet in length. On these is
a platform which supports a light wooden
frame. On the bed sits the gasoline engine and
there remains room enough for four men. The
framework supports the two propeller screws
which furnish the motive power.

"The hydroplane is steered by a small rud-

The Wright Brothers* experiment with hydros, 1907.

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT 181

the experiments. Fabre's floats were a great
improvement on the pontoons.

Glenn H. Curtiss's Success

Glenn II. Curtiss was very early impressed
with the great advantages of an aeroplane ca-
pable of operating from the water. His first
machine, the well known June Bug, built by
him as a member of the Aerial Experimental
Association, and flown at Hammondsport suc-
cessfully for the "Scientific American" trophy
in 1908, was in the fall of that year equipped
with pontoons and operated on Lake Keuka
under a new appellation The Loon. This ma-
chine was a twin pontoon machine equipped
with separate hydro surfaces placed under-
neath the floats, but the experiments were un-
successful.

In 1909, Mr. Curtiss gave the problem much
study. In that year he conceived the form of
the machine which was to make him famous the
world over. His idea was a machine of the
single float type with small floats beneath the
tips of the wings combined with hydro surfaces,
the former to act by displacement to buoy the
wing tips up when the machine was standing
still and the latter to act when the boat was
operating at speed to impart a stabilizing
hydro-lift to the wing tips when the machine
should become unbalanced. In this way opera-
tion at speed on an even keel was assured. The
single float was to be centrally placed and was
to be provided with hydro-surfaces beneath it.
In the early spring of 1910 this machine was
built. The main float was a light but strong

Becue piloting Fabre hydroaeroplane, 1911.

der, which extends backward from the middle
of the crafts. The water planes, which form
the basis of the inventors' idea, are situated be-
tween the floats and perpendicular to them.
The idea is to have these floats so constructed
and set that they will just permit the floats to
touch the water enough to keep the structure
afloat. The basic idea is much the same as that
of ball bearings, which is that of decreasing fric-
tion. It is claimed that such a craft, when
worked out, will be able to attain a speed of
from twenty-five to thirty miles an hour. The
present machine is motored by a 20-horse-power
engine."

Unfortunately during the very night of the
day of this experiment, the dam, which retained
the water on which the experiments were made,
broke, and the Wrights found it impossible to
continue the experiment.

The First Flight from the Water

The first to leave the water with a power-
driven hydroaeroplane was Henri Fabre, a
young French engineer, who, after three years
of experiments, constructed a hydroaeroplane
of original design fitted with a 50-horse-power
Gnome motor, and succeeded in leaving the wa-
ter, flying and returning to the water without
mishap. This first flight took place on March
28, 1910, near Martigues, France; the height
reached was about six feet, the distance cov-
ered one thousand feet. A better flight was
made on May 17, 1910, of about one mile at a
height of 30 feet, but on landing the machine
was much damaged. Subsequently a number
of flights were made; but the machine had many
limitations. When at last it was wrecked, at
Monaco, during a storm, Fabre discontinued

Glenn H. Curtiss piloting his bydroseroplan
Diego la 1911

182

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

canoe. Metallic hydroplanes were fitted be-
neath it fore and aft and suitably braced from
the keel and the gunwales of the canoe. The
wing tip floats were conically capped tin cylin-
ders. The wing tip hydro-surfaces were flexi-
ble wooden paddles inclined downwardly and
rearwardly. The motor was a standard 4 cyl-
inder, 40 horse-power Curtiss motor. Early
in May of 1910 this machine was tried on Lake
Keuka with wonderful results. The problem
of operating at speed upon the surface of the
water was proven to be solved. Time and time
again the little craft was operated up and down
the lake at varying speeds from the lowest to
the highest, turning sharply to right and to left
with absolute safety and with perfect poise.
The flexible paddles connected with the cylin-
ders under the wing tips maintained the ma-
chine always on an even keel. The solution of
this problem made possible not only safe opera-
tion at speed upon the water, but also alighting
upon the water from the air.

About this time, Mr. Curtiss made his world-
heralded trip from Albany to New York and
won the $10,000 prize of the "New York
World." As a preliminary to this he actually
equipped a land machine having the usual
wheels with pontoons and hydro-surfaces, and
starting from the land took an extended flight
through the air and alighted safely upon the
surface of the water. With the experience of
this achievement he equipped his Hudson Flier
with pontoons and hydro-surfaces so that
should occasion have required he could have
landed upon the surface of the water. But so
well had he prepared for this flight and so ca-
pable was the machine with which he flew that

One of the early experiments of Hugh L. Wllloughby, 1908-10.

machine in flight.

there proved to be no necessity for the use of
these devices.

But the small 40 horse-power motor of the
canoe machine proved to be too weak to attain
that speed necessary for flight, and Mr. Curtiss
immediately laid plans for a machine with
greater power. That summer while he earned
money for his experiments by his daring exhi-
bition work on land machines he kept his shop
at Hammondsport busy on the construction of
the new machine. The new hydroaeroplane
was equipped with a pontoon of the modern
streamline form, having a broad, flat hydro-
planing bottom and a scow-like bow. Not only
was this to have less water and air resistance
than the adapted canoe of the former machine,
but it was to exert a hydro lift through its own
bottom instead of through attached hydros used
in the canoe machine. It took time to build
such machines then, facilities were not great,
and experienced help scarce. But the machine
was ready in the late fall, and was immediately
shipped to San Diego, California, where Mr.
Curtiss had found most excellent climate for
winter experiment, and a wonderful stretch of
water for tests in the Spanish Bight between
North Island and Coronado. Within a fort-
night after assembly of the new machine was
commenced the Curtiss 60 horse-power motor
had propelled the craft from the water to the
air and safely back again, and the press had
acclaimed to the world the advent of the suc-
cessful hydroaeroplane. The first public flights
were made on January 26, 1911. Already a
further improved craft was under way, and
within a week after the flights of January 26
we find the inventor flying the machine which
was to be adopted by the United States and

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLAXE AND THE FLYING BOAT

188

foreign navies. Three weeks after, on Feb-
ruary 17, 1911, he introduced the new craft to
the United States Navy by flying to and land-
ing alongside of the criiiser Pennsylvania, was
hoisted aboard by the ship's crew, and when
dropped overboard again rose and flew back to
shore. Thereafter a number of the Curtiss
aviators used hydroaeroplanes for exhibition
work, and the navy having purchased a Curtiss
hydroaeroplane, naval officers — Lieutenants T.
G. Ellyson and J. H. Towers — learned to fly,
won their certificates with it, and made scores
of flights. During October 17-21 Hugh Rob-
inson flew from Minneapolis to Rock Island,
Illinois, 370 miles, carrying arid distributing
mail along the route. Hundreds of flights had
been made by the close of 1911 with one- and
two-passenger types, fitted with motors of 60-
horse-power and 75-horse-power, and a speed
of 50 miles per hour on the water and 60 miles
per hour in the air had been attained.

A further development, a machine with a
float of pronounced boat shape, was made in the
fall, 1911, and was tried on January 10, 1912.
The fundamental idea was changed from that
of a floating aeroplane to that of a flying boat.
The first trial was successful, the craft fitted
with a 60-horse-power motor rising from the
water with ease, and traveling on the water at
a speed close to 50 miles an hour and in the
air at one mile a minute.

The first test of seaplanes in a completion
took place at Monaco on March 24-31, 1912.
It was organized by the International Sport-
ing Club of Monaco, which offered 15,000
francs for prizes to be divided between the three
winners: first, 8000 francs; second, 4000
francs; third, 3000 francs. The contest was
for starting and alighting from still water
and rough water, starting and landing from
dry land, and passenger carrying. Points
were awarded to the winners of daily con-
tests, and the one getting most points won the
prize.

This contest, being the first of its kind and
coming at a period when the navies were look-
ing for air crafts for marine service, was well at-
tended by sportsmen and military authorities of
different countries. Ideal weather favored

the meet from beginning to close, enabling most
of the aviators to contest daily.

Seven aviators flying five different types of
machines took part and concluded as follows:

Aviator

Machine

Motor

Points

Fischer

Henri Farman biplane

Gnome

112.10

Renaux

Maurice Farman biplane

Renault

100.80

Paulhan

Curtiss biplane

Curtiss

86.30

Robinson

Curtiss biplane

Curtiss

71.90

Caudron

Caudron biplane

Anzani

63.

Benoit

Sanchez Besa biplane

Salmson Unne

5030

Rugere

Voisin biplane

—

41.75

The meet was a success, but the craft had its
disadvantages, principally that of precluding
the test on rough water. It would have been
interesting to ascertain whether such large ma-
chines as the Henri Farman and Maurice Far-
man, whose large spread made it possible to
rise from the water with as many as five pas-
sengers, could withstand the heavy sea as well
as the Curtiss Triad, which was quite at home
midst four-feet breakers, and was the fastest
machine in the contest. The importance of
this meet was that it brought forth the im-
portance of testing seaplanes in rough
water.

By August, 1913, marine flying had become
quite popular. In the United States a num-
ber of sportsmen, including Robert J. Collier
and Harold F. McCormick, owned their own
seaplanes, and the United States Navy con-
ducted important experiments, particularly the
launching of seaplanes from ships, the details
of which are given in another chapter. This
country led in efficiency of types of seaplanes,
and different foreign governments purchased
our flying boats. It must be stated that much
of the progress was due to the able efforts of
Mr. Henry A. Wise Wood, who fathered "ma-
rine flying" from the very beginning, when the

The Burgess hydroaeroplane piloted by Mr. W. Starling

Burgess, 1912.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

flying boat,"

hydroaeroplane was considered a freak. He
encouraged experiments in marine flying and
prophesied exactly what has come to pass.
Much credit is also due to Captain W, I.
Chambers, U. S. N., for his able work in
1911-13.

France was also progressing rapidly. The
list of seaplanes which competed in the Paris-
Deauville race and the Deauville meet held in
August, 1913, gives the status at marine flying
in France at the time.

The Paris-Deauville Race

The race from Paris to Deauville was held
on August 24, ten machines, each carrying a
pilot and passenger, taking part. The pilots
starting were: Weymann, Levasseur, Pre-
vost, Janoir, Molla, Chemet, Rugere, DeMon-
talent, and Divetain.

The distance from Paris to Deauville, fol-
lowing the Seine, is 330 kilometers. Chemet
covered the distance without a stop in 3 hours,
47 minutes, oVA seconds. Three others
stopped en route and finished as follows : Le-
vasseur, 7 hours, 38 minutes, 15 seconds; Molla,
8 hours, 46 minutes, 11% seconds; Janoir, 10
hours, 11 minutes, 4 seconds. Levasseur was
disqualified, however, for not passing the con-
trol at Mousseaux.

Of the other contestants, Weymann, who
flew very low and actually flew at full speed
under bridges, was stopped by trees. In try-
ing to take a short cut over a narrow branch

The hydroaeroplanes which participated in the first c<

Monaco — 191 3.

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT

of the river at Saint-Pierre-du Vouvray, Dive- ' " ~ " ■' ■ " "

tain had to quit at Elbeuf, his floats having
been damaged in landing on a rough shore.
De Montalent fell near Rouen, his heavy
machine being caught in remous at a low alti-
tude.

The results of this race were not up to the
standard established by French aviators — who
in the year past had made many flights of be-
tween 500 and 1000 miles a day. A 500-mile
flight was no longer recorded by the press, and
an 800-mile flight, of which half a dozen had
been made in the past month, was given but a
few lines. The reason for this was that the con-
testants had to follow the Seine, which is tor-
tuous and often narrow and lined with trees;
and to pass each control, of which there was one
at every bend of the river, they found it neces-
sary .to fly low, and thereby go through the
remotts. This was the cause of the Montalent
disaster, and the reason for the victory of the
light machines.

The Deauville meeting, like the Paris-Deau-
ville race, was attended by excellent weather,
which favored in many ways the light-built,
low-powered machines, except during part of
two days, the 29th and 31st, when the sea was
heavy, once with a gale, then so rough that the
destroyers, which had been on the scene of op-
eration each day, remained in the harbor until
the wind had abated.

Development Between 1914-17

An idea of the tremendous development that
has taken place since 1914 may be gained from
the following specifications: issued by the
United States Navy Department in August,
1916 (schedule 39) , which includes the terms of
bid for aeroplanes for the United States Navy
opened September 5, 1916.

CLASS 181. — (Req'n 3, Office of Naval Aeronautics,
C. and R. and S. E.—App'n: "Aviation, 1917"—
Sck. 39.)

To be delivered at the Navy Aeronautic Station,

Penbacola, Fla., within days after date of

contract.

Bidders will insert in the above blank space the
shortest time within which they can guarantee delivery,

The Martin aero yacht in flight

subject to penalty for delay as provided in Form A.
Other conditions being nearly equal, the time of deliv-
ery will be considered in making award.

Stock Classification No. 65

Bids are desired for furnishing aeroplanes, complete,
and power plants, complete, as follows :

Aeroplane.- — Includes the aeroplane proper, exclus-
ive of power plant items, and in order for night, and as
per the following specifications, and includes, in addi-
tion, a launching truck and the necessary shipping
crates.

Power Plant. — Includes motors, propellers, radiat-
ors, starting devices, gasoline and oil tanks, piping,
controls, gasoline and oil gages, wireless outfit, power
transmission system, tachometers, and the necessary
shipping crates, etc., in order for flight, and as per the
following specifications :

Bid A. — On the basis of furnishing 3 aeroplanes and
power plants.

Aeroplanes each

Power plants each

Bid B. — On the basis of furnishing 6 aeroplanes and
power plants.

Aeroplanes each

Power plants each

Bid C. — On the basis of furnishing 9 aeroplanes and
power plants.

Aeroplanes each

Power plants each

Bid D. — On the basis of furnishing 12 aeroplanes and
power plants.

Aeroplanes each

Power plants each

Bids to be itemized as above ; unit prices to govern.

186

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Note. — Bids on this schedule should quote prices
only, and should be forwarded in the usual manner to
the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, All drawings,
blue prints, and descriptive matter illustrating the ap-
paratus it is proposed to furnish, or amplifying the
specifications, should be placed in a separate envelope
and forwarded to the Office of Naval Aeronautics,
Navy Department, Washington, D. C, in time to be
received before the hour fixed for opening the bids.
All such envelopes delivered late wUl not be opened and
the bids will not be considered. These envelopes
should be marked "Confidential," and should bear the
name of the bidder, class and schedule numbers, and
date of opening. After award of contract the draw-
ings, etc., submitted by unsuccessful bidders will be re-
turned.

Specifications
special conditions

Aeroplanes having characteristics differing from
those specified will be considered, provided the differ-
ences are clearly noted in the specifications proposed,
and provided the design proposed has sufficient merit
to warrant such consideration.

It is desired to obtain the performance required on
the lowest weight and power consistent with the other
requirements of the specifications. What is wanted is
a handy school aeroplane, embodying to the greatest
degree practicable the qualities specified without the
use of excessive power for the purpose. The perform-
ance outlined in these specifications may be departed
from moderately without prejudice to a design, but is
intended as a close guide to the type desired.

NOTE. — The following specifications have been
purposely made of a very general character, stating

broadly the results which it is desired to obtain. Bid-
ders are requested to state in particular detail the
methods they propose to employ to attain these results,
in order that their proposals may receive intelligent
consideration.

The department reserves the right to reject any or
all proposals under these conditions. Awards will be
based on the merit of the design, the design and manu-
facturing abilities and facilities of the bidders, the
completeness with which information is supplied, and
the price and time of delivery. It is particularly de-
sirable that bidders shall estimate exactly deliveries
which can be met. •

GENERAL BEfll'IBEMENTS

To be a naval aeroplane of the two-place, tractor,
biplane type, and to conform in general to the de-
tailed requirements of the following specifications :

PEBEOBMANCE

Maximum Speed. — Not less than 52.1 knots (60
miles per hour) nor more than 60.7 knots (70 miles per
hour).

Minimum Speed. — Not more than 84.7 knots (40
miles per hour).

Climb, — Two thousand five hundred feet in first 10
minutes from surface.

Getaway. — Not over 84.7 knots (40 miles per hour).

Landing. — Not over 84.7 knots (40 miles per hour).

Radius. — Four hours, full power.

Fly in wind of 80.4 knots (85 miles per hour).

Drift in wind of 21.7 knots (25 miles per hour).

Getaway and land in wind of 21.7 knots (25" miles
per hour) .

1913 type of Wriglit flying Ikm

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT

Mr. Robert J. Collier, and Walter iirookins about to land by the Atlantic Fleet flagship Wanking ton. Mr. Collier went on board
of the ship and invited Rear Admiral Hugo Osterhaus to attend the Aero Show, May 9, 1913. Burgess hydroaeroplane.

r AND CONSTRUCTION

Throughout the construction of all aeroplanes and
parts contracted for, designated inspectors shall have
complete and free access to the shops, plans, specifica-
tions and records of tests of material involved in the
construction of same. Where required, supplement-
ary tests of materials and parts shall be made as di-
rected by the inspector.

All parts to be of first class workmanship, material
and design.

Alterations of parts, plans or material shall not be
made without approval of the Navy Department.

Improvements developing between the dates of the
contract and the completion of the machine shall be in-
corporated in the machine, if approved by the depart-
ment, which shall determine finally the change of cost
under the contract, if any is involved.

In the same manner any other changes or altera-
tions ordered by the department after signing of the
contract shall be considered and the change in cost de-
termined.

Parts which appear defective in design, material or
workmanship will be rejected and satisfactorily re-
placed unless the objection to their use is removed by
a satisfactory demonstration of fitness. Aluminum
shall not be used in the structural parts where strength
is involved.

Protection from weather and salt spray shall be pro-
vided for all parts by the use of approved paints, var-
nishes, shellac, covers or metal plating, or by the use
of non-corrosive material.

Portable covers for the cockpits and power plants
shall be furnished with each aeroplane.

All interior woodwork will be given efficient pro-
tection against moisture. Particular care must be
exercised to prevent access of moisture at faying sur-
faces, to end grain, and at butts, scarfs and joints.
Such protection must be applied before final assembly
of parts.

The color scheme will be natural finish or as ap-
proved,

The wing section used should be chosen with a view
to efficiency and stability, and its characteristics in
these respects must be known from laboratory tests.

The wings shall be readily and quickly removed or
attached.

The control surfaces shall be of such proportions as
to give positive control when flying at slow speed.
They are to be capable of operation by either pilot
unassisted or in conjunction.

Duplicate control leads are required to ailerons and
rudders. The duplicate leads to follow as nearly as
practicable different lines from those of the principal
leads.

Means for hoisting shall be provided in the form of
a fixed eye for a shackle over the top plane, and as
nearly over the center of gravity when afloat as is
practicable. The means of attachment shall be thor-
ough and permanent and distribute the load to suitable
members.

All parts shall be thoroughly trussed to withstand
the launching impulse on the catapult. As this will
depend upon the point of attachment and the float ar-
rangement, prospective bidders should at once submit
general arrangement plans to the department which
will approximately indicate the point of attachment or

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Short folding wings seaplane being lifted out of the hold

□fa seaplane carrier.

any minor rearrangement of substructure required.

The floats may be of any type which will meet the
requirements as to seaworthiness. They shall be sub-
stantially built to withstand the service intended, and
to be stream lined as much as practicable without in-
volving elaborate construction. They shall be divided
into water-tight compartments, provided with ap-
proved means for inspection and drainage while afloat
and when resting on launching trucks. The floats
shall be provided with towing cleats, of approved form,
securely fastened to the float.

Transportation trucks of approved design are re-
quired with each aeroplane.

The following instruments of approved type are to
be furnished and installed on the instrument boards:

Air-speed meter, tachometer.*

Longitudinal inclinometer, oil gage*; air gage.*

And the following instruments supplied by the Gov-
ernment shall also be installed or provided for :

Altimeter, compass.*

Those items marked with * are to be installed in
pilot's cockpit only.

A suitable gasoline gage, visible from the pilot's
seat, to be installed on main gas tank.

All aluminum parts are to be given protection against
the effects of salt water.

All oil piping to be annealed.

The gas leads to reserve tanks, the control leads
and the carbureter adjusting rod shall be provided
with suitable and safe and ready couplings where
these connections have to be frequently broken.

A positive system of pumping gasoline from the re-
serve tanks to the service tank shall be provided un-
less gravity feed or pressure feed from all tanks is
used.

Gas, water and oil service pipes will be protected
against vibration.

A positive means of cutting off the gas at the ser-
vice tank shall be readily accessible from either seat.

At least one reliable method of stopping the motor
shall be provided, to be operated from either seat.

Fuel tank capacity for at least four hours* flying
at full power shall be provided. Fuel tanks are to
stand an internal pressure of live pounds per square
inch and shall be divided by swash-plate bulkheads.
The heads of the tanks are to be so formed as to pre-
vent crystallization due to vibration.

The service feed tank shall have a capacity for at
least one-half an hour's flight, and shall be so fitted as
to prevent danger from fire in case the machine should
turn upside down.

All couplings and fittings in the gasoline line are
to be thoroughly sweated on.

So far as practicable the entire power plant should
be assembled as a unit on a good rugged foundation,
which can be readily removed or replaced with a mini-
mum disturbance of connections, controls and other
structural fittings.

The motor shall, if practicable, be so installed as
to permit of dropping the lower crankcase without
the removal of the motor from its foundations.

A complete set of power plant tools to be supplied
with each machine.

POWER PLANT

To be suited to the requirements of the machine and
to be provided with self-starters so fitted and installed
that the motor may be started from the pilot's seat.

The carbureter shall be provided with a means for
heating and with a successful means for muffling to
prevent fire in case of a blowback from the engine.
Provision shall also be made to prevent any danger
in case of fire should the machine turn upside down-
Double independent ignition and double magnetos
shall be used.

The motor shall be protected from moisture and
spray.

The ignition and auxiliary circuits must be thor-
oughly protected from short circuits from spray, to
insure against failure of the motor from this source.

The propellers shall be suited to the requirements
of the motor and machine, and their efficiency should
exceed 70 per cent. They should be efficiently pro-
tected from the action of spray and broken water.
The bub face plates shall be thoroughly interconnected
independently of the propeller bolts. A safety fit-
ting shall be provided, so that in case the propeller
bolts carry away, the propeller cannot come off the
hub.

MOTOR TESTS

Before installation, one motor, if of a design new
to the department, to be selected, shall be put through
the complete set of tests in succession as described
herein. These tests shall take place at the navy yard,
Washington, D. C.

Mr. Rodman Wanomaker's flyer, America, the first twin motored seaplane, taxjing on Lake Keuka, Hammondsport, N. Y.

Hodman Wanatuakcr's Flyer Amerira in fliglit at Hammondsport, N. Y.

190

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Test A. — A run on the block to determine the maxi-
mum brake horse-power and the revolutions necessary
to deliver the rated horsepower, to be followed by the
calibration run for determining the b.h.p.r.p.m. curve.

Test B. — Two five-hour runs of the motor with cali-
brated moulinet or propeller at rated power. After
the five-hour runs the motor shall be disassembled and
the motor and the auxiliary parts shall be weighed. It
will then be carefully examined and conditions within
noted, particular attention being paid to the amount
of wear and of carbon deposit. If the above tests
and inspections are satisfactory, the motor shall be
reassembled and given an additional one-hour run,
without any adjustments or replacements during same,
and during which observation shall be made in exactly
the same manner as in the previous five-hour run. All
other motors to be given tests at the factory the same
as test B, except that there shall be one five-hour run
only to be made with propeller calibrated at the
Washington navy yard.

During the above trials records of the revolutions
obtained and the corresponding power developed shall
be made every fifteen minutes, together with notes as
to the general action of the motor while running.
The engine shall be thoroughly balanced, and vibration
shall be a minimum. Oil and gasoline consumption
shall be measured for each of the above trial runs and
notes made as to the temperature of the circulating
water at the inlet and outlet. No adjustments or re-
placements are to be made during the above trials.

Definition. — Full load comprises the aeroplane com-
plete in order for flight and, in addition, fuel and oil
for four hours 5 flight at full power and 375 pounds for
pilots, instruments and equipment.

TRIALS

Demonstration Trials. — Before entering the pre-
scribed acceptance tests each aeroplane shall be set up
and flown by a representative of the builder at such
place as shall be agreed upon. During these trials
the full load shall be carried, and it shall be demon-
strated to the satisfaction of the inspector that the
aeroplane is capable of meeting the requirements. De-
fective features, if any, developing in the course of
these trials shall be corrected and demonstrated to
have been overcome.

Acceptance Trials. — If the demonstration trials
have shown that the aeroplane is capable of entering
its acceptance trials with a reasonable assurance of
meeting the requirements, it will be given acceptance
trials at the Navy Aeronautic Station, Pensacola,
Fla., at such times as may be agreed upon in the con-
tract. In the case of duplicated machines, the demon-
stration trials will be all that are required, and they
shall demonstrate that each additional aeroplane can
perform consistently with the original of the type.

SEAWORTHINESS

If the weather affords an opportunity, the aero-
plane must ride at anchor or adrift in a 21.7-knot (25-
mile) wind in Pensacola Harbor without danger of
capsizing ; otherwise stability shall be demonstrated to
the satisfaction of the inspector.

Adrift, it should head into the wind.

Underway at low speeds it should steer readily.

With FuU Wind. — The aeroplane shall get away in
a calm in smooth water in not over 1500 feet (from
a start with the motor idling at not over 25 per cent,
of the revolutions for full speed).

It shall be capable of alighting and getting away
in a 21.7 knot (25-mile) wind in Pensacola Harbor.

It should be capable of landing at high speed
without danger of nosing rudder.

It should begin planing at not over 21.7 knots (25
miles) in rough water.

It should not capsize on a skidding landing or when
running with wind abeam at high speed on the sur-
face.

The floats should have a skid-form profile and a
sufficiently easy bow to allow of plowing through a
moderate sea without undue pounding or wetness.

AIKWORTHINESS

To have efficient longitudinal, lateral and directional
stability in strong and rarified winds up to 30.4 knots
(35 miles per hour) and to be capable of banking
steeply without danger.

Longitudinal control shall be such as to enable re-
covery after a steep glide and to enable the machine
to readily assume the gliding attitude in case power
should fail while climbing.

Proposed aeroplanes shall have initial or natural
lateral, longitudinal and directional stability in flight,
such that moderate variations from the neutral atti-
tude shall produce, positive righting moments without
introducing oscillations of increasing amplitudes ; any
special arrangement of the wings or control surfaces
for the purpose shall be clearly described, together
with the effects produced.

Inherent or natural stability will be demonstrated
by steadying the aeroplane on a path, straight or
curved, and then holding the control in a fixed position.
Under these conditions the aeroplane should continue
to hold its path and trim for an appreciable period
without requiring correction or assuming a dangerous
attitude.

With Full Load. — A maximum speed of not less
than 52.1 knots (60 miles per hour) and not over 60.7
knots (70 miles per hour) is required.

A minimum speed of not over 34.7 knots (40 miles
per hour) is required.

A climb of 2500 feet in ten minutes from leaving the
surface is required.

192

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

DATA REQUIRED WITH PROPOSALS

Bidders will submit the following data, in duplicate,
with their proposals :

1. General arrangement plans of aeroplane.

2. Profile of wing section, with characteristics, stat-
ing source of data.

8. Stress diagram for the wings and body.

4. Tabular list of maximum, fiber stresses on truss
members, together with strength of materials involved,
and factor of safety indicated.

Note. — A factor of safety of not less than 7 is re-
quired.

5. Horsepower curves for full load, horizontal flight,
to show (a) wings e.h.p. ; (fe) head resistance e.h.p. ;
(c) total e.h.p. required; (d) total e.h.p. available.
All curves based on knots (1 knot equals 6080 feet).

6. Motor Particulars. — General arrangement plans,
specifications, b.h.p. r.p.m. curve, guaranteed fuel and
oil consumption, and weight schedule as follows: (a)
Motor empty, with ignition system and carburetor;
(6) radiator; (c) cooling water; (d) propeller; (e)
starter complete with tank or battery.

Additional information in the form of plans, pho-
tographs, catalogues, or other descriptive matter may
be submitted if desired.

Spare Parts. — A complete table of spare parts, to-
gether with the prices at which the bidder is prepared

r.B*.

%n£J0*\

LOHMUt

CPTHA

IMOftT

Recent types of seuplanes ami flyinjr boats which are prominent on
the various European battle fronts. Courtesy London Aeroplane

to furnish each part throughout a period of one year
from date of contract, is to be submitted with the bid,
but such prices are not to be included in the cast of
the machine as referred to above. The following is a
list of spare parts on which prices are to be quoted as
per data required :

(a) Aeroplane Parts. — Floats, each; upper wing;
lower wing; set of struts for one wing; steering rud-
der, stay wires, each size ; turn-buckles, each size ; div-
ing rudders ; horizontal stabilizers ; vertical stabilizers ;
keel planes ; ailerons ; control levers or wheels, each
type ; and items of outfit, etc.

(6) Power-plant Parts. — Include motor; propel-
ler; crank shaft; cam shaft; starting device; cylin-
ders ; valves ; pistons ; spark plugs ; carburetors ; mag-
netos, etc.

(c) Aeroplane Tools. — Include complete set of
socket wrenches ; spanner wrenches ; open-end wrenches ;
and any special tools necessary for all sizes of bolts
and fittings used in the aeroplane; to be itemized.

(d) Power Plant Tools. — Include complete set of
socket wrenches ; spanner wrenches ; open-end wrenches ;
and any special tools necessary for the assembly of the
power plant and its auxiliaries ; to be itemized.

Note. — It is expected that spare parts to the value
of 10 per cent, of the contract will be required with
delivery of the aeroplanes. Such additional spare
parts as may be required during the year fol-
lowing the date of contract; to be delivered
within days after receipt of order.

Bidders must insert in the above blank space
the shortest time within which they can make
delivery.

Delivery. — Upon the satisfactory comple-
tion of the specified trials each machine will be
put in first-class order and defects corrected.
It will then be approved for acceptance.

It is desired to obtain these machines at the
earliest practicable date.

Payments. — Payments will not be made un-
til satisfactory plans corrected from work are
supplied to the Navy Department, Washing-
ton, D. C, in triplicate as follows (1 Van
Dyke (cloth) and 2 prints each) :

General arrangement plans, scale 1 inch to
the foot.

Detail plan of planes, scale 3 inches to the
foot.

Detail plan of floats, scale 3 inches to the
foot.

General arrangement plans of power plant.

Detail plans of power plant.

Detail plans of propellers, and a complete
set of corrected data as required with propos-
als, and in addition the complete data obtained
in the trials of the power plant and of the ma-
chine, complete.

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TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

AEROMAR1NE.

The above plans and information should be fur-
nished with the delivery of the first machine, and if
this is done the payment for each machine will be
made upon delivery as specified.

The next development of basic importance in
the evolution of seaplanes was the development
of the multiple-motored seaplane, first the fly-
ing boat, then the hydroaeroplane. The first
twin-motored flying boat was the Wanamaker
flyer America, ordered from the Curtiss Aero-
plane Company by Mr. Rodman Wanamaker
in the early part of 1914, for the purpose of
making a trans-atlantic flight. The America
was a flying boat, the hull of white cedar, 32
feet long and with a beam of 4 feet. The upper
wings had a 72-foot span and the lower 46. It
was equipped with two 100 horse-power Curtiss
motors. It was figured out that the machine
could lift easily the 5000 pounds of weight which
would include: fuel, 2000 pounds, made up of
300 gallons of gasoline and 25 gallons of oil;
hull, 550; pilot and assistant, 300; motors, wings,

tanks, and supplies, 2150. The two oil tanks
were suspended above the engines; the gasoline
tanks, five in number, were arranged in the hull,
and the gasoline was forced up from the tanks
to the motors above the operators* heads.

The America was christened on June 22,
1914, and a number of flights were made with it
on Lake Keuka, N. Y. As the final tests were
being made war was declared and Lieut. John
C. Porte, of the British Royal Naval Flying
Corps, who was to pilot it, had to return to Eng-
land for service. The America was acquired
by the British Admiralty and was used for
many months for patrol duty, and then as a
training aeroplane.

An important contribution, making it possi-
ble to stow seaplanes on board of a ship in the
minimum space, was the development by the
Short Brothers, the British aircraft manufac-
turers of the folding wings seaplane.

Another valuable development was the Gal-
laudet seaplane with a new stream line sys-

EVOLUTION OF THE SEAPLANE AND THE FLYING BOAT

195

tern of propulsion. The connection between
the front and rear portions of the body and the
mounting of the propeller of the Gallaudet sea-
plane is so rigid and strong that the chances of
propeller failure are reduced to a minimum.
The part of the propeller nearest the center,
which absorbs power without producing any
propulsive effect, is inside the body, so that the
power usually lost in this portion is expanded
with the heat near the tips. The result is esti-
mated to be an increased propulsive efficiency
of 10 per cent, to 20 per cent., according to the
relative diameters of body and propeller.

In 1916-17 the number of twin-motored sea-
planes increased, and there were also built
larger seaplanes equipped with three and four
motors. One of the Curtiss seaplanes equipped
with three motors is shown elsewhere in this
book. The larger air cruiser, also built by the
Curtiss Aeroplane Company, when sent to Eng-
land, was equipped with 4, 250 horse-power mo-
tors, and during the tests carried 3500 pounds
of crew and equipment. This type of air
cruiser opens new problems, requiring mechani-
cal piloting, and special arrangements for hous-

ing it. The first problem can be solved by the
employment of the Sperry automatic pilot; the
second would probably be solved by making the
hull more substantial so that the machine can
be kept in the water all the time. Once these
two problems have been solved, larger air
cruisers will be built.

There is no visible limitation as to the size
which air cruisers can be built, and as the weight
and fuel consumption of motors decreases the
capacity for carrying useful load increases, per-
mitting the building of stronger hulls to with-
stand the roughest conditions. In discussing
the subject of torpedoplanes with the writer,
Mr. Glenn H. Curtiss stated that he was ready
to construct a large torpedoplane capable of
carrying a half dozen torpedoes and landing at
sea and riding the sea for days. This would
make it possible for an air cruiser while on pa-
trol duty to fly out 500 miles and remain at sea
on the lookout for hostile ships, only rising oc-
casionally to scan the sea for enemy ships, sav-
ing its fuel — which would eliminate the expendi-
ture of fuel involved in returning to the base
each night.

A Naval Zeppelin dirigible.

CHAPTER XXIX

NAVAL DIRIGIBLES

One often hears expressed the opinion that
the Zeppelin has been a failure, which is usu-
ally followed by a general condemnation of the
dirigibles as instruments of war. These are
hasty conclusions, dealing only with one aspect
of the subject — with the Zeppelin as an instru-
ment of destruction. In this respect the critics
are right, since the expectation was that Zep-
pelins would destroy cities by dropping tons
of explosives on them.

This notion was established before 1912, when
the aeroplane was limited in its performances.
The reason Zeppelins have not destroyed cities
is that swift, powerful aeroplanes have been de-
veloped which are a match for a Zeppelin when-
ever they can find the airship in the immense
dark sky, at night. During the day it is too
dangerous for Zeppelins to venture on a raid.
Theoretically, they would be successful by em-
ploying a formidable escort of fighting aero-
planes, but the number of aeroplanes would
have to be large, more than equal to the number
of aeroplanes which the Allies can send up to
fight them, and that Germany has not been able
to do. So the Zeppelins only operate in the
long, dark winter nights.

Though they are prevented from doing much

damage by aeroplanes and anti-aircraft guns,
the Zeppelins, like the submarines, are success-
ful in keeping from the front tens of thousands
of men who are part of the aircraft and anti-
aircraft defenses, and would be at the fronts
otherwise.

For coast patrol and as an auxiliary of the
fleet, the Zeppelin is very efficient indeed. For
submarine hunting, convoying ships, and patrol-
ing ship channels, a single Zeppelin can easily
do the work of fifty aeroplanes, and can do work
which no aeroplane can do at present.

Germany alone was prepared in the line of
large dirigibles at the beginning of the war.
Her preparedness in Zeppelins, of which she
had about forty, represented the result of the
work of Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin since
1900, and the investment of probably over one
hundred million dollars. Since then Zeppelins
have been produced almost as fast as the
U-boats have been produced, and have been
used extensively in naval operations and coast
patrol work.

The reader can get full details of the hun-
dreds of dirigibles built by different countries
from "D'Orcy's Airship Manual" (published
by the Century Company, New York, price

NAVAL DIRIGIBLES

197

$3.50), and the author will not attempt to sup-
plement D'Orcy's exhaustive work.

Germany's Naval Airships

The following information regarding Ger-
many's latest naval airships is reprinted from
"The Aeroplane," London, England, and
"Aerial Age Weekly," New York City, N. Y.:

The Zeppelin brought down in Essex recently was
from 650 feet to 680 feet in length, and measuring 72
feet across its largest diameter, the vessel was of
stream-line form, with a blunt, rounded nose and a tail
that tapered off to a sharp point. The framework
was made of longitudinal lattice-work girders, con-
nected together at intervals by circumferential lattice-
work ties, all made of an aluminium alloy resembling
duraluminum. The whole was braced together and
stiffened by a system of wires, arrangements being
provided by which they could be tightened up when re-
quired. The weight of the framework is reckoned to
be about nine tons, or barely a fifth of the total of
fifty tons attributed to the airship complete with en-
gines, fuel, guns and crew. There were twenty-four
balloonets arranged within the framework, and the
hydrogen capacity was 3,000,000 cubic feet.

A cat-walk, an arched passage with a footway nine
inches wide, running along the keel, enabled the crew,
which consisted of twenty-two men, to move about the
ship and get from one gondola to another. This foot-
way was covered with wood, a material which, however,
was evidently avoided as much as possible in the con-
struction of the ship. The gondolas, made of alumin-
ium alloy, were four in number; one was placed for-
ward on the center line, two were amidships, one on
each side, and the fourth was aft, again on the center
line.

The vessel was propelled — at a speed, it is thought,
of about sixty miles an hour in still air — by means of
six May back-Mercedes gasoline engines of £40 horse-
power each, or 1410 horse-power in all. Each had six
vertical cylinders with overhead valves and water cool-
ing, and weighed about 1000 pounds. They were con-
nected each to a propeller shaft through a clutch and
change-speed gear, and also to a dynamo used either
for lighting or for furnishing power to the wireless
installation. One of these engines with its propeller
was placed at the back of the large forward gondola ;
two were in the amidships gondolas, and three were in
the aft gondola. In the last case one of the propellers
was in the center line of the ship, and the shafts of
the other two were stayed out, one on either side.
With the object of minimizing air-resistance the stays
were provided with a light but strong casing of two-
or three-ply wood, Bhaped in stream-line form. The

gasoline tanks had a capacity of 2000 gallons, and the
propeller shafts were carried in ball bearings. The
date, July 14, 1916, marked on one of them, is thought
to indicate the date of the launching or commissioning
of the vessel.

Forward of the engine room of the forward gondola,
but separated from it by a small air space, was first
the wireless operator's cabin, and then the command-
er's room. The latter was the navigating platform,
and in it were concentrated the controls of the ele-
vators and rudder at the stern, the arrangement for
equalizing the levels in the gasoline and water tanks,
the engine-room telegraphs, and the switchboard of
the electrical gear for releasing the bombs. Provision
was made for carrying sixty of the latter in a com-
partment, amidships, and there was a sliding shutter,
worked from the commander's cabin, which was with-
drawn to allow them to fall freely. Nine machine
guns were carried. Two of these, of 0.5 inch bore,
were mounted on the top of the vessel, and six, of
smaller caliber, were placed in the gondolas— two in
the forward, one each in the amidships ones, and
two in the aft one. The ninth was carried in the
taU.

Sketch of frame of the Zeppelin brought down in Essex, Eng-
land. It was between 650 and 680 feet long, 72 feet diameter,
had 24 balloonets with hydrogen capacity of 2,000,000 cubic
feet, six engines of 240 horse-power each.

198

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

As regards the Zeppelin airships of the naval class,
the least one can say about the information which fol-
lows hereafter is that it is as accurate as any other
that has filtered through neutral and other channels.

The following are the outstanding facts regarding
this list: All matter in sections 1, 2, S, 4 is abso-
lutely the genuine stuff ; the airships of classes A, B, C
have been described in detail by many Swiss and Italian
magazines, although often with errors, and have here
been corrected according to data given the writer by
a neutral who just returned from Germany. The
existence of class D is beyond doubt, although opinions
differ regarding their volume and power plant. Fi-
nally, there is undoubtedly a larger type than the
L.33 9 for a power plant of seven or even eight motors
has actually been seen on recent airships by various
observers. I would not bet a cent that the L.33 class
actually displace 54,000 cubic meters, for although
I may be mistaken, I personally believe they are rather
between 45,000 and 50,000 cubic meters. I repeat I
do not vouch for the correctness of the displacement
of classes D, E, F, but I most emphatically do vouch
for the linear dimensions given.

Incidentally, one might remark that Count Zeppelin
himself announced in 1913 the increases in size for
which calculations had been made, and gave the master
diameters of the types to be as 17.5 meters, 20 meters,
22 meters, 25 meters, and 30 meters.

And one more thing, if you put down 250 grammes
(i.e., about 0.5 pounds) as the fuel and oil consump-
tion (including water) per horse-power hour, and mul-
tiply according to power plant, you will find out there
has never been, nor will there be for a time, a Zeppelin
having an endurance of 75 or 100 hours at full speed,
as has been said about the naval airships. For a 40-
hour s endurance with a power plant of 1000 horse-
power would alone necessitate carrying ten tons of
fuel, always assuming Maybach fuel consumption.

Naval Airship Division

Headquarters: Cuxhaven. — The eventual strength
of the Naval Airship Division (Marine-Luftschiff-
Abteilung) was laid down in the four years' building
program authorized by the Reichstag on October 13,
1913, providing $2,750,000 for the construction of 10
airships of the rigid type, $3,500,000 for the construc-
tion of two first-class air harbors and several sub-
sidiary ones, all fitted with revolving sheds; and
$2,500,000 for the maintenance of the materiel.

Two airship squadrons, each to consist of four
active and one reserve units, were to be organized and
stationed at the first class air harbors of Heligoland
and Tondern, respectively. Second-class air harbors
were either to be created or alreadv existed at Emden,
Wilhelmshafen, Cuxhaven, Hamburg, Kiel, Wismar,
Rostock, and Konigsberg. In Hamburg and Konigs-
berg private hydrogen generating plants are available.

This program was to be completed by January 1,
1918.

At the outbreak of the Great War the strength of
the Naval Airship Division consisted of one airship
(L.3) commissioned and four (L.J^-L.7) building; the
L.3, L.5> and L.6 were of the Zeppelin type, the L.£,
and L.7 of the Schutte-Lanz type. In addition three
air-liners of the German Airship Navigation Co.
(Delag) of Frankfurt, had been chartered to serve as
training airships ; these were the Sachsen, Hansa, and
Viktoria-Luise.

The airships of the Naval Airship Division all bear
the mark L. (Luftschiff ) regardless of their type, and
are numbered currently.

CLASS A

This class represent the highest development of
orthodox Zeppelin design. The hull, made of alumin-
ium trellis-work, is in the form of a cylinder with
ogival ends, the bow being but slightly blunter than
the stern; a triangular keel fitted as a gangway con-
nects the two open cars and contains in the middle a
closed cabin. Cross-wire monoplane fins and elevator,
multiplane rudder.

L.3 (May 11, 1914), L.5 (November, 1914), L.6
(December, 1914).

L.8 (February, 1915), L.9 (March 12, 1915).

Builders: Zeppelin Works, Friedrichshafen.

Length: 158 meters (521.4 feet).

Beam: 16.6 meters (54.8 feet).

Height: 18.9 meters (62.4 feet).

Fineness ratio: 9.5 to 1.

Volume: 27,000 cubic meters (958,000 cubic feet).

Total lift : 29.7 tons.

Useful lift: 8 tons.

Compartments : 18.

Propelling apparatus : Four 210 horse-power 6-cyl-
inder Maybach engines (equals 840 horse-power)
mounted in twin-units on each car and driving through
shaft and bevel gear transmission four 2-bladed side
propellers. Fuel consumption, 0.240 kilograms
(0.528 pounds) per horse-power-hour, 1200 revolu-
tions per minute.

Full speed: 80 kilometers (50 miles).

Full speed endurance: 26 hours.

Maximum altitude: 2500 meters (8250 feet).

Complement: 16.

Armament: (1) Four Maxims mounted on the cars
and firing broadsides; (2) 1.5 tons of explosives.

Notes. — The L.3 stranded during a storm on Febru-
ary 17, 1915, near Esbjerg; the crew were saved and
interned, but the airship was a total loss. The L.5
was destroyed on June 7, 1915, in the airship shed of
Evere by Flight Sub-Lieuts. J. P. Wilson and J. S.
Mills, R. N. A. S. The L.6 was set on fire and de-
stroyed in mid-air on the same day near Ghent (Gand)
by the late Flight Sub-Lieut. R. Warneford, R. N.

NAVAL DIRIGIBLES

A. S. All the crew perished. The L.8, while return-
ing from a raid on England, was engaged by Flight
Commander Bigsworth, R. N. A. S., on May 17, 1915,
near the Belgian coast, and so damaged that she was
wrecked on landing near Tirlemont. All of the crew
are reported to have thereby been killed. The L.10,
while returning from a raid on England on August 10,
1915, was engaged and wrecked off Ostende by the
Dunkirk squadron of the R. N. A. S.

The L.9 is thus the only survivor of this class.

This class is characterized by an ellipsoidal hull
built up of laminated wood girders forming a closely
meshed lattice-work which is kept under tension by
wire stays. There are five cars, four of which are
crosswise hung from the hull by cables and constitute
the engine-rooms; the fifth car is rigidly connected
with the hull near the bow, and serves as the naviga-
tion room. Cruciform "fin-and-flap" tail. No keel.

L4 (January, 1915), L.7 (February, 1915), L.t
(1915), LM (1915).

Builders : Schutte-Lanz Works, Rheinati, near
Mannheim.

Length: 165 meters (544.5 feet).

Beam: 18.4 meters (60.7 feet).

Height: 81 meters (69.3 feet).

Fineness ratio: 8.9 to 1.

Volume: 80,000 cubic meters (1,059,000 cubic feet).

Total lift: 33 tons.

Useful lift: 14 tons.

Compartments: 7.

Propelling apparatus : Four 840 horse-power Mer-
cedes engines (equals 960 horse-power) mounted sin-
gly on each engine-car, and driving through a clutch
one 8-bladed rear propeller each. Fuel consumption:
0.840 kilograms (.588 pounds) per horse-power hour.

Full speed: 85 kilometers (53 miles).

Full speed endurance: 86 hours.

Maximum altitude: 8500 meters (8850 feet).

Complement: 16.

Armament: (1) Five Maxims, mounted one on each
car; (8) 1.5 tons of explosives.

Notes. — The L.£ foundered in a storm on February
17, 1915, off Esbjerg; four of the crew were lost with
the airship, the remainder were interned. The L.7
was shot down by H. M. ships Galatea and Phaeton,
on May 4, 1916, off the Schleswig coast. Seven of
the crew were rescued and made prisoners. The L.%1
was set on fire and destroyed with all aboard on Sep-
tember 3, 1916, near Cuffley, by Lieutenant William
L. Robinson, V. C, R. F. C.

The airships of this class resemble generally speak-
ing, those of Class A, except for the stern, which is
pointed, and carries in lieu of multiplane-tail surfaces

Fighting a battleplane from the platform of a Zeppelin.
(Courtesy of "Illustrated London News.")

a cruciform "fin-and-flap" tail. Cars and gangway
like on Class A. Hull frame: aluminium lattice work.

L.11 (July 10, 1915), L.1B to L.19 (August to
November, 1915).

Builders: Zeppelin Works, Friedrichshafen and
Potsdam.

Length: 160 meters (588 feet).

Beam: 17.5 meters (57.8 feet).

Height: 19 meters (68.7 feet).
- Fineness ratio: 9-1 to 1.

Volume : 30,000 cubic meters (1,059,000 cubic feet).

Total lift: S3 tons.

Useful lift: 10 tons.

Compartments : 18.

Propelling apparatus : Five 810 horse-power 6-cyl-
inder Maybach engines (equals 1050 horse-power),
two of which arc mounted in the bow-car and drive
two 2 bladcd side-propellers ; the stern-car houses
three engines, two of which drive two side-propellers,
while the third engine drives through a clutch trans-
mission a rear propeller.

Full speed: 85 kilometers (53 miles).

Full speed endurance: 26 hours.

Maximum altitude: 3500 meters (11,550 feet).

Complement: 16.

Armament: (1) Four Maxims mounted on the cars
and one on the roof, near the bow; (2) 2 tons of
bombs.

Notes. — The L.15 was damaged, while raiding Eng-
land, by anti-aircraft guns, and by Lieut. A. de W.

200

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Brandon, H. F. C, and came down on April 1, 1916,
in the mouth of the Thames, near Kentish Knock,
where the crew scuttled the airship and surrendered.
The L.18 caught fire and blew up on November 17,
1915, in the airship dock at Tondern. The L.19 was
damaged by anti-aircraft guns during a raid on Eng-
land, and subsequently foundered on February 2, 1916,
in the North Sea with the entire crew.

This class differs from the one preceding, essentially
in that the hull has no keel, the gangway being en-
closed in the bottom. The cars are entirely closed
and of streamline shape; they are, on account of the
third engine each carries, much longer than heretofore.
Central cabin in the bottom of the hull.

L.20-L.29 (November, 1915-April, 1916).

Builders: Zeppelin Works, Friedrichshafen and
Rheinau.

Length: 170 meters (560 feet).

Beam: 20 meters (66 feet).

Fineness ratio: 8.5 to 1.

Volume : 35,000 cubic meters (1,235,000 cubic feet).

Total lift: 38.5 tons.

Useful lift: 13 tons.

Compartments: 19.

Propelling apparatus: Six 210 horse-power 6-cylin-
der Maybach engines, mounted in triple units on each

car; each unit drives through shaft and bevel-gear
transmission two side-propellers, and through a clutch
one rear-propeller.

Full speed: 95 kilometers (59 miles).

Full speed endurance: 30 hours.

Maximum altitude: 4000 meters (13,200 feet).

Complement: 18.

Armament: (1) Two large bore machine-guns: one
on the roof, near the bow, and one on the bow-car,
mounted forwards; (2) six Maxims: two each on the
cars and cabin, all firing broadsides; (3) 2.5 tons of
bombs.

Notes.— The L.W stranded on May 3, 1916, near
Stavanger, having run out of fuel while homeward
bound from a raid on Scotland. The crew were in-
terned and the airship was blown up by the Norwegian
authorities as a measure of precaution. The L.32 is
reported to have been wrecked in the early part of
December, 1915, at Tondern.

This class, often referred to as the Super-Zeppelin
class, may be regarded as a product of the combined
Zeppelin and Schutte-Lanz designs, for although the
hull frame is made of aluminium trellis work, the cross-
wise mounting of the cars is strongly reminiscent of
Class B. No central cabin, but bomb emplacement
amidships; gangway like on Class D. Four cars.

NAVAL DIRIGIBLES

201

L.30 (May 29, 1916), LSI (June 17, 1916), L.32
(June, 1916), L.33 (July 14, 1916), L.3J. (August,
1916).

Builders: Zeppelin Works, Frit'drichshafen nnd
Mannheim-
Length: 207 meters (680 feet).

Beam: 22 meters (72 feet).

Fineness ratio: 9-4 to 1.

Volume: 54,000 cubic meters (1,906,200 cubic feet).

Total lift: 59.4 tons.

Useful lift: 19.4 tons.

Compartments: 19.

Propelling apparatus : Six 250 horse-power 6-cylin-
der May bach engines ; three arc mounted singly on the
bow-car and in two central side cars ("power eggs")
and drive through a clutch one 2-bladcd rear-propeller
of 8.85 meters (17.5 feet) diameter each; the three
remaining engines are mounted in a triple-unit on the
stern car and drive two side propellers and one rear-
propeller of the same diameter as above.

Full speed: 105 meters (65 miles).

Full speed endurance: 35 hours.

Maximum altitude: 5000 meters (16,500 feet).

Complement: 20-22.

Armament: (1) Two large bore machine-guns car-
ried side by side on roof, near the bow, on collapsible
tripods ; one similar gun is mounted on the roof, near
the stern; (2) six Maxims, viz., two each on the bow
and stern-cars, and one each on the side-cars, all
firing broadsides; (3) sixty bombs aggregating 3.5
tons.

Notes. — The L.31 was shot down by A.-A. guns and
aviators while rniding London on October 2, 1916, and
was destroyed with all aboard at Potter's Bar, The
L.32 was shot down during a raid on London by A.-A.
guns and aviators on September 24, 1916, and fell in

Essex. All of the crew were killed. The L.33 was
damaged by A.-A. guns and aviators while raiding
London on September 24, 1916; landed in Essex, and
was blown up by commander. Crew surrendered.

CIASS F

These airships are very similar in general design to
those of the preceding class ; there are, however, seven
or even eight engines to the power plant, with an equal
numbr of propellers. Four cars.

Builders: Zeppelin Works, Fricdrichshafen and
Rheinau.

Length: 285 meters (775.5 feet).

Beam: 25 meters (82.5 feet).

Fineness ratio: 9.4 to 1.

Volume: 70,000 cubic meters (2,471,000 cubic feet).

Total lift: 77 tons.

Useful lift : 28 tons.

Compartments: (?)

Propelling apparatus : Seven 250 horse-power May-
bach engines ; mounted in twin-units on the bow-car,
singly on two central side-cars ("power eggs"), and
in a triple-unit on the stern-car. There are, conse-
quently, six side-propellers, four of which are mounted
on outriggers, and one stern-propeller. On a later
model of this class the power plant consists of eight
engines, there being three engines in the bow-car in-
stead of two, so that one stern-screw is added to the
propelling apparatus.

Full speed: 110 kilometers (68 miles).

Full speed endurance: 40 hours.

Complement : 20-22.

Maximum altitude: 5000 meters (16,500 feet).

Armament: (1) Four large bore machine-guns
mounted in pairs on the roof near the bow and near
the stern; (2) six Maxims, mounted in pairs on the

The Zeppelin "L. Z. 6" on the stocks, strong aluminum frame 490 feet long.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Tile "D. N. 1," the first United States Naval Dirigible, during one of its test trips.

bow and stern-cars, and singly on the sidecars; (8)
4 tons of explosives.

Notes. — One airship of this class is said to have
been destroyed on September 22, 1916, in the airship
dock of Rheinau by French aviators. Another air-
ship of this class appears to have been wrecked by the
storm on November 21, 1916, near Mayence, while
en route from Friodrichshafen to Wilhelnishafen.

Two naval airships (numbers unknown) were shot

t patrolled dirigible photographed while passing u
le of the ships "somewhere Id Europe."

down during a raid on November 28-^9, 1916; one off
Durham by aviators of the R. F. C, and one off Nor-
folk by aviators of the R. N. A. S. Another naval
airship, whose number is unknown, apparently foun-
dered off Sylts on September S, 1916, while homeward
bound from a raid on England. (Witnessed by nu-
merous vessels.)

One can hardly read the above and of the
valuable services rendered to Germany of the
Zeppelins without feeling like exclaiming, as
Hon. Arthur J. Balfour did in the House of
Commons on February 16, 1916:

"England's greatest error before the war was
made when the Government decided not to
develop the 'rigid Iighter-than-air' machine.

"I am sorry that we did not develop that type
of vessel, not so much for aggression and de-
fense as for maritime and other scouting. Such
airships might have played for us an important
part. Certainly Germany has had an advan-
tage in possessing them."

Mr. Balfour amplified this statement later,
by saying:

"It is extremely desirable that we should have
lighter-than-air machines ... in order to sup-

NAVAL DIRIGIBLES

Floating hangar of
the United States
Navy dirigible "D. N.

plement the efforts of our fleet by machines
which, in many respects and in favorable
weather, are far more effective than the swiftest
destroyer or the most powerful cruiser. There-
fore, we have done and we are doing our best
to develop the lighter-than-air machines."

Coming from a British first lord of the ad-
miralty, these words are particularly significant,
so significant, indeed, that they make all com-
ment superfluous, excepting that one can never
urge too often the necessity of the United States
building large dirigibles for naval purposes.

One of the Coast Patrol dirigibles at Salonika which are used extensively in connection with naval operations

204

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The "Blimps," "Coast Patrol Airships,"
"Submarine Spotters"

While Great Britain has reasons for regret-
ting that she did not develop large dirigibles,
she also has reasons for being pleased with the
work of her small dirigibles, which are, at times,
called "submarine spotters" or coast patrol air-
ships, because of their remarkable work in spot-
ting submarines, and in coast patrol, but are
generally known as "Blimps."

The Allies have hundreds of these small
dirigibles and have used them in all their naval
campaigns. The details of construction are
practically the same as the details of the sixteen
dirigibles of this type ordered by the United
States Navy in March, 1917, and the perform-
ances obtained, only a little less than are ex-
pected under the United States Navy's specifi-
cations, which are as follows.

Memoranda :

CHAPTER XXX

SPECIFICATIONS FOR UNITED STATES NAVY SCOUTING TYPE

DIRIGIBLES

Specifications for scouting type dirigibles
were issued by the United States Navy Depart-
ment in February, 1917, and prices asked on
one, two, four and eight dirigibles, and an
equivalent number of power plants, to be deliv-
ered at any point to be designated by the Gov-
ernment on the Atlantic or Gulf coasts of the
United States. Final acceptance tests to be
completed within 120 days after date of con-
tract or bureau order, the bids to be opened at
10 a. m. on March 6. (See U. S. Navy Aero-
nautics.)

The complete specifications follow:

Specifications
(special conditions which modify form a)

The following specifications, terms and special con-
ditions are understood to apply to each dirigible con-
tracted for :

The department having adopted, as foundation for
this contract, the plans and specifications herein below
guaranteed by the contractor to be capable of certain
performances, assumes no responsibility with refer-
ence thereto, and will consider any changes therein
suggested by the contractor, and will feel it to be its
duty to permit changes therein so long as the require-
ments of the contract, plans and specifications remain
substantially the same. The contractor shall submit
from time to time as required the detailed drawings,
plans, and specifications of the vessel for the examina-
tion and approval of the department, and all drawings
shall have the approval of the department before the
work is begun, but the department shall not be held re-
sponsible for any failure of the vessel to fulfil any of
the contract requirements unless such failure be due to
the adoption and use of any design or material not
specifically covered by the specifications and made on
the request or demand of the department for which the
contractor disclaims responsibility at the time of such
demand or request by the department. The permis-
sion of the department to make changes suggested by
the contractor shall not place the responsibility there-
for upon the department.

The contractor will, at his own risk and expense,
construct, in accordance with the aforesaid drawings,

plans, and specifications, including duly authorized
changes therein, one dirigible, to be provided with fit-
tings, equipment, machinery, devices, appliances, and
appurtenances complete in all respects, and in accord-
ance with detailed plans and specifications to be pre-
pared in accordance with the aforesaid drawings,
plans, specifications, and current practice tit date such
drawings are submitted for approval by the contractor
and submitted to the department for its examination
and approval from time to time, as may be necessary,
before the work is begun.

The prices quoted above are not to include trans-
portation charges from the contractor's works to point
of delivery. When the destination of each dirigible is
determined, the contract price will be modified to in-
clude the transportation charges.

Guarantee. — The contractors must agree to guar-
antee the dirigble for three (S) months from date of
delivery. Any defects which may develop within that
time which can be attributed to faulty workmanship,
material, or design must be made good by the con-
tractors without cost to the Government.

The contractors shall guarantee to protect the Gov-
ernment against any patent infringement; the Gov-
ernment also having the right to use with the dirigible
any and all of the patented features controlled by the
manufacturer of the dirigible without any obligation
on the part of the Government.

Payments. — Payments shall be made by the depart-
ment upon bills submitted in quadruplicate and certi-
fied by the inspectors of the department in such form
as the department may direct, as follows :

Fifty per cent, of the contract price of the dirigible
when —

(a) The envelop and ballonets have been satisfac-
torily air tested.

(6) All parts have been satisfactorily assembled at
the works of the contractors.

(c) All parts have been satisfactorily tested at the
works of the contractors.

(d) The complete dirigible has been prepared and
placed on board for shipment to destination and trans-
portation company's receipt delivered to the inspector.

Forty per cent, of the contract price when the diri-
gible has been accepted.

Ten per cent, of the contract price or such part
thereof as may remain at the expiration of three
months as is due the contractors after remedying by

205

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCOUTING TYPE DIRIGIBLES

207

the Government of such defects as they may be re-
sponsible for.

The contractor agrees to refund to the Government
one-half of the payment of 50 per cent, of the con-
tract price above referred to, in case a dirigible after
trial shall be rejected.

The bond on the contract will, therefore, be 50 per
cent, of the contract price, the liability being limited
to 25 per cent, of the contract price for satisfactory
performance of the contract, and 25 per cent, of the
contract price for refund of the amount specified
above.

Insurance. — The dirigible, after being delivered to
the transportation company, shall be insured by the
contractors at their expense in such form as the
Secretary of the Navy may designate, against risks
of transportation, fire, and damage, except such dam-
age as may occur during actual trials free from the
ground.

Bonus and Penalty. — The dirigible is desired to be
ready for its trials within three months from date of
contract. If the dirigible satisfactorily completes its
acceptance trials before the expiration of four months,
a bonus of $100 a day will be paid for each day so
saved up to 30 days. Liquidated damages at the rate
of $100 per day will accrue for each day beyond the
four months period until the ship is given satisfactory
trials, subject to remission for any of the causes stated
in paragraph 10 of the conditions of Form A.

No extension of time hereinabove allowed for com-
pletion shall operate to extend the premium period
fixed above, except such extensions as are approved by
the department to correspond to delays in trials or de-
livery is prevented or delayed due to unsuitable weather
conditions, failure of the department to provide a trial
board promptly, or other causes for which the con-
tractor is not responsible.

The total bare weight shall not exceed the figure
given in the weight statement marked "Penalty
weight," and any overweight shall render the ship
liable to rejection. A bonus of $5 per pound will be
paid for each pound of weight as listed above which
the contractor can show has been saved. Items of
outfit or equipment, such as instruments, fire extin-
guishers, etc., which may be added or omitted at the
department's request shall not be counted in comput-
ing the bonus earned. Furthermore, if the depart-
ment should later decide that any fin, tank, or other
feature of the design is unnecessary, the weight saved
by its omission shall be subtracted from the "penalty
weight" above before bonus is computed.

Uncompleted Work. — The dirigible when delivered
to the Government must be as nearly complete in ac-
cordance with the contract as possible, but should
there be any work not completed by the contractors it
will be done by the Government at the contractor's
expense.

Inspection. — The work of construction shall be at
all times open to inspectors of the department and
their assistants, and every facility shall be afforded
such inspectors for the prosecution of their work.

Inspectors may peremptorily reject any inferior
workmanship or material or forbid the use thereof.
Should the contractors question such decision, they
shall have the right of appeal to the department whose
decision shall be final.

The contractors shall furnish under the contract,
without additional cost, such samples of material and
information as to the quality thereof and manner of
using same as may be required, together with any as-
sistance necessary in testing or handling materials
for the purpose of inspection or test.

Suitable offices, conveniences, and necessities for the
use of the inspector or his assistants during the con-

A close view of one of the blimps. A
bomb may be seen attached to the under-
carriage.

208

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

struct ion of the dirigible shall be furnished under the
contract.

Corretpondence. — All correspondence with the de-
partment shall be forwarded through the inspector in
duplicate. Letters involving claims for delay and ap-
peals to the department shall be forwarded through
the inspector in triplicate.

Weighing of Material. — The contractors shall fur-
nish under the contract competent weighmasters, who
shall make daily returns of weights to the inspector
in such manner as the inspector may prescribe.

Tlie contractors shall furnish the necessary scales
and other apparatus for making correct return of
weights. Great care shall be taken that all scales are
properly adjusted and that no estimated or calculated
weights are returned.

All material of every description placed on or at-
tached to the dirigible shall be weighted, together with
all material of every description which after being
weighed and placed on or attached to the dirigible are
removed ; the weight and description of the part
weighed in all cases to be reported to the inspector.

Where material is assembled before being weighed
the center of gravity of such assembly shall be ascer-
tained. The center of gravity of each part or group
of parts entering into or attached to the dirigible shall
be reported in relation to the nose of the dirigible and
from the axis of the envelope.

Trials. — The acceptance trials shall be conducted
by the contractor, who shall furnish all necessary gas,
fuel, or other material and the operating personnel.
The contractor may select good weather for the trials
in which the wind velocity at a height of 100 feet from
the ground is less than 15 miles per hour. The de-
partment expects to have ready sheds for housing the
dirigible at the point of delivery and it is agreed that
the contractor shall have the use of such shed from
which to conduct the trials. In case trials are held
from a Government shed, the Government agrees to
provide hydrogen gas at a cost to the contractor of
1 cent per cubic foot, and also labor for handling the
dirigible on the ground under the supervision of the
contractor.

The contractor may conduct the acceptance trials
at a place selected by him, furnishing his own gas,
labor, shed, and all facilities. When trials are com-
pleted the dirigible is to be created and prepared for
shipment to destination, where it shall be erected and
inflated by the Government under the supervision of
the contractor.

The following trials shall be conducted, the pro-
cedure to be followed to be settled by agreement before
such trials are undertaken:

(a) Endurance Trial. — With full load at start con-
sisting of the bare weight listed in the weight state-
ment and a useful load of 2 men, full supply of fuel
and oil and such ballast as the contractor may choose
to carry, the ship is to be driven through the air con-
tinuously at full power for three hours.

(6) Speed Trial. — With any convenient load the
ship is to be driven at a full speed through the air
over a measured course at least 10 miles in length.

(c) Manceuvering Trial, — With any convenient
load, the ship is to ascend to a height of 6,000 feet in
10 minutes, to descend from this height in Id minutes,
and to be so maneuvered as to demonstrate that she
is completely under control in three dimensions both
at full speed and at cruising speed.

The dirigible shall, in addition, fulfil on said trials
the following conditions:

(1) The working of all the machinery, devices, ap-
pliances, and appurtenances, and all parts thereof,
shall be to the satisfaction of the department.

(2) The dirigible shall be found in alt its parts to
be strong and well built and in strict conformity with
the contract, drawings, plans and specifications, and
duly authorized changes therein. During the time of
these trials and thereafter until delivery of the dirigible
all machinery and equipment shall be kept in an effi-
cient and operating condition by the contractor.

If, upon the trials and tests required by this con-
tract, the dirigible shall fail to fulfil the requirements
and conditions hereof, the contractor shall be entitled
to make further trials, sufficient in number to demon-
strate its capabilities: Provided, That the number
of trials shall be determined and limited by the depart-

Gas valves are set to automatic-
ally release when pressure at bot-
tom is 1 inch of water. 11k
safety valve Is located on top of
the envelope.

The manteuver valve la located
under the envelope and operate*
as a safety valve also, but mar
be opened by means of a line to
the pilot's seat

Openings In valves are 90 inches
In diameter. Tightness la seemed
by spring loading which brings
the valve against a rubber seat
on the valve frame.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCOUTING TYPE DIRIGIBLES

209

ment and that all the expenses of all trials and tests
of the dirigible prior to conditional acceptance shall be
borne by the contractor.

Such tests and trials shall be witnessed and reported
upon by a board appointed by the department in order
to determine whether or not the dirigible as completed
satisfies the requirements. The board shall have
power to prescribe the precautions and methods neces-
sary to insure accurate results, but shall have no
power to direct the methods of operation of the dirigi-
ble on trial, and the board shall take into account and
report upon the performance of the dirigible and her
qualifications and capabilities with respect to the dem-
onstration by tests and trials, as aforesaid, of spe-
cial features not specifically covered in the tests and
trials prescribed. If, at and upon the trials and tests
before mentioned, the foregoing requirements and con-
ditions shall be fulfilled, and if the dirigible is built in
accordance with the requirements of the contract,
plans, and specifications, and duly authorized changes,
and is complete in every respect and ready for deliv-
ery to the department, then, and in such case, the
dirigible shall be conditionally accepted; but if the
speed and other qualities attained by the dirigble on
trial shall fall below the guaranties and requirements
aforesaid, but not below certain minimum require-
ments hereinafter set forth, deductions from the price
shall be made in accordance with the following provi-
sion, viz:

Every effort shall be made to attain the designed
speed of 45 miles per hour, but if the speed on trial
is below 35 miles per hour the dirigible may be re-
jected.

Accounts. — During the construction of the dirigible
detail cost accounts shall be kept and such accounts,
in condensed form, shall be submitted to the depart-
ment upon completion of the contract. These ac-
counts shall be at all times open to the inspection of
the department's representatives. It is agreed by the
department that all cost data supplied by the con-
tractor is to be considered strictlv confidential.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A NONRIGID NAVAL
DIRIGIBLE FOR COAST PATROL

This specification contemplates a nonrigid self-pro-
pelled dirigible or airship designed for use in connec-
tion with coast or harbor patrol. It is intended that
the dirigible shall be operated from a base on shore,
but that it shall be possible for it to rest upon the
surface of the water in good weather.

The airship shall consist of a nonrigid envelope
made of rubberized fabric and containing hydrogen
under sufficient pressure to maintain the rigidity of the
envelope. There shall be attached to the envelope
vertical or horizontal fins and vertical and horizontal
rudders, mooring line, rip panels, maneuvering and

safety valves, ballonets or internal air sacks with
means for their inflation.

Beneath the envelope and supported thereby is car-
ried upon a suspension a car or body containing the
power plant, fuel, ballast, personnel, radio, etc.

The envelope fully inflated has a displacement of
about 77,000 cubic feet, corresponding to a gross
buoyancy of 5,275 pounds when inflated with hydro-
gen of good commercial purity and under normal con-
ditions of barometer and temperature. Under these
conditions the life is reckoned at 0.068 pound per
cubic foot, at 15° C. and 760 mm.

The length of the envelope is 160 feet and the
maximum diameter 81.5 feet; maximum width over tail
fins, 86.2 feet; the center of buoyancy is 69.2 feet
from the nose; the height over all is 50 feet; horse-
power of motor, 100; horsepower of blower engine, 2;
maximum safe attitude, 7,500 feet.

Designed maximum speed at an altitude of 600 feet,
45 miles per hour ; endurance at full power, 10 hours ;
cruising speed, 85 miles per hour ; endurance at cruis-
ing speed, 16 hours.

Capacity of tanks, 100 gallons, 600 pounds.

Total volume of both ballonets, 19,250 cubic feet.

Reserve ballast tank in car, 300 pounds of water.

Trimming tanks attached to envelope: Forward,
40 pounds of water ; after, 50 pounds of water.

The following weight statement is furnished for
the guidance of the contractors and is subject to such
changes in distribution as are found necessary during
development, but the total weight of all items is not
to be exceeded:

Envelope (including seams, nose piece, and
doublings only for ballonet attachment, tail
group, grab ropes, and ballonet suspension,

also belly band) 1,177

Gas valves and sight holes 36

Air ducts, air valves, and air manifold 54

Suspension, wire cable, crow's feet, grab ropes 35

Ballonets, including ballonet suspension 350

Fins and rudders, including their bracing. . . . 480
Running rigging for steering and rip panels,

and parts of nose rope on envelope 48

Car:

Structure (including tank weights) . ., 321

Engine, mufflers, radiator and water, pro-

pellor and hub 568

Blower engine and blower 100

Starting crank for main engine 25

Lighting cells, wiring and lamps 30

Landing gear and floats 58

Miscellaneous fittings, including jack stay,

stirrups, and nose rope 57

Total "penalty weight" 3,334

210 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Useful load: the inspector shall be furnished with complete plans,

Pilot and observer 320 m tne ^ orm of cloth trying 8 ™ ™k "th blue print*

Instruments 100 in . triplicate, of all parts of the dirigible, corrected

d jj 250 to show the work as it was actually installed at the

Fuel and oil" !"!".'!!"!"""!!!!! '. 670 time of dd^ery.

Water ballast (including 90 pounds for , ™* *«," partially or completely assembled

trimminel 390 before installation shall be photographed and two (2)

Sandbag ballast! ".'!"."!!!."."!!!!"! 211 P rints from a negative (6 by 8 inches) shall be sup-

plied the inspector. The object of this requirement

1 911 ' s *° °kt am photographs of fin and rudder construc-
tion, valves, suspension car, blower installation,

The following plans arc furnished as a part of these power-plant installation, etc., to form a record of

specifications. In case of any discrepancy between progress. With the final plans the contractor shall

the plans and specifications, however, the specifica- deliver to the inspector 12 copies of a descriptive

tions shall prevail: booklet giving complete description of material, con-

(1) General arrangement plan. struction, operation, testing, care, and maintenance

(2) Detail sheet showing type construction of mis- of the completed dirigible and each of its principal
cellaneous parts. parts and accessories.

The contractors shall develop from the plans and Workmanship. — The workmanship throughout shall

specifications such working plans as may be necessary be of the most thorough character and suitable for

for the construction of the dirigible. Before under- the purpose intended and satisfactory to the inspec-

taking work or ordering material from such plans tor.

the plans must first receive the approval of the in- Aluminum shall not be used for important strength

spector, and all work done on the dirigible must be members, nor shall any strength member depend for

strictly in accordance with such approved plans. its strength upon brazing, welding or soldering.

The inspector shall be furnished with a copy of all

requisitions for material. In case it is desired that ABTtCl.ES OF Equipment and outfjt TO be

such material shall be inspected at the place of mann- furnished and installed by the con-

facture, the inspector shall be so advised at the time tbactors under the contract

of placing the order and furnished with such addi- Tachometer,

tional copies of the requisition as he may require. Gasoline air pressure gage.

Should it not be convenient to inspect the material Circulating water and lubricating oil thermometers,

at the place of manufacture, the contractors will be Oil pressure gage,

so advised and the material will be inspected after Longitudinal inclinometer,

delivery at the contractors' works. Map boards.

Within one month after the delivery of the dirigible Mooring rope.

ISNtSHT 63" oven all

AIR DISTR I BUTION
MANIFOLD

AIR DISTRIBUTION MANIFOLD

The air distribution manifold is provided with four relief valves, each with an opening 9 inches in diameter, which are spring
loaded to release air at % inch of wutcr pressure.

Pipe from blower to distribution valve is 7% inches in diameter, and the wind pipes from distributor to ballonets are of balloon
fabric, 8 inches in diameter. Air from the blower can be drected to either or both ballonets by flap valve dampers operated by
cords from the pilot's seat.

All parts of the manifold and valves are of aluminum with the exception of pins, guide rods and springs. Springs are of
phosphor bronze, and tiieir adjustment device is gas tight.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCOUTING TYPE DIRIGIBLES

•211

Two gas pressure manometers.

One ballonet air pressure manometer.

ARTICLES OF EttUIPMENT AND OUTFIT TO BE FUR-
NISHED BY THE GOVERNMENT AND INSTALLED
BY THE CONTRACTORS UNDER THE
CONTRACT

Altimeter, statoscope, compass, air speed meter, lire
extinguisher (chemical sprinkler type). Search light.

Protective Coatings. — The envelope shall be made
of rubberized fabric as a protective coating. The
car shall have woodwork sandpapered and coated with
heavy spar varnish, "Valspar" or its equivalent in
quality. Wire cable shall be galvanized and solid
wire used in the body construction shall be tinned.
Steel bolts and pins shall be coppered and nickel
plated. Clips of sheet steel shall be hot galvanized
or coppered and nickel plated or copper plated and
covered with baked enamel.

The fabric covering the car, fins and rudders, shall
be coated with at least five (5) applications of nitro-
cellulose, and finally coated with "Valspar" varnish or
its equivalent.

Portable canvas coverings for cockpits and power
plant shall be furnished.

FABRIC REQUIREMENTS

Factor of Safety. — The contractor must be able to
show that the fabric factor of safety under normal
running conditions for any part of the dirigible ex-
ceeds 8. The strength to be taken as a basis, to be
found by the methods given below.

Construction of Fabric. — All fabric used in the en-
velope or ballonets to contain two or more plies of
cloth, one of which is to be laid on a bias of 4-5 de-
grees. Sufficient rubber of proper quality shall be
placed in the fabric to meet the requirements as to
diffusion and weather- resisting properties, which are
given below. The protective coating on the outside
of the envelope shall weigh at least 0.4 ounce per
square yard, and on the inside 0.2 ounce per square
yard.

No fabric in the balloon is to weigh over 12 ounces
per square yard, and no fabric is to test less than 40
pounds per inch in the direction of any of the threads,
either bias or straight, test to be made as described
below.

Fabric in the top of the balloon shall show an aver-
age strength over 60 pounds per inch for the four
different directions of threads; or a strength over
100 pounds per inch in either warp or filler if the two
plies are doubled straight together for a sample
test.

The fabric which is intended to separate air and
gas shall have an average hydrogen diffusion not
greater than nine liters per square meter per 24 hours,

according to the procedure given below, and under a
pressure of SO millimeters of water.

Samples of the finished fabric shall be submitted to
the naval inspector for approval before starting con-
struction.

Method of Weight Testing. — The figure for the
weight of fabric shall be obtained by getting the net
weight of an entire roll and dividing by its superficial
area in square yards.

Strength Test. — Dimensions of samples, 2 inches
wide by 6 inches long. Cut 12 samples from each roll,
including 3 each from the warp and filling of the
straight ply, and 8 each from the warp and filling of
the bias ply. Place in the testing machine with 8
inches initial gap between jaws. The speed of sepa-
ration of jaws will be 12 inches per minute. Use
jaws 2 inches wide. A number of specimen seams
shall also be tested by this method, enough to prove
to the inspector that they are over 100 per cent, effi-
cient.

Diffusion. — The following conditions are assumed
when getting the final result for hydrogen diffusion:

1. Temperature 15° C.

2. Pressure on the air side of fabric to be atmos-

INSTHL'MENT BOARD ARRANGEMENTS

In scouting dirigibles os specified by the Navy Department the
forward instrument board is to be equipped with instruments
arranged as shown in the accompanying drawing. They are as
follows ;

1. Compass, 3. Thermometer, 3. Altimeter, i. Statoscope, 5. Air
Pressure Gage, (i. Tachometer, 7. Oil Pressure Gage, S. Switch,
9. Longitudinal Inclinometer, 10. Clock, 11. Two Manometers to
indicate Hydrogen pressure, \2. Air Speed Indicator, 13. Throttle.

The board in the aft part of the car is for instruments to be
used in connection with a radio set. Both Iwards are 2* inches
wide and 18 inches in over-all height, with the upper edge curved
at a 11-inch radius.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

A British Blimp dirigible entering

its hangar near Salonika.

pheric with pressure difference of SO millimetres of
water.

8. Current of air to be maintained on the air side.

4. Fabric to "soak" in the hydrogen for at least
5 hours before starting test.

5. Run the test itself at least 2 hours and correct
the result to apply to 24-hour period.

6. Keep the air stream perfectly uniform (about 5
bubbles per second through sulphuric acid).

1. Apparatus and method to be the same in prin-
ciple as that used by the Goodyear Tire & Rubber
Co., described by R. A. D. Preston in "India Rubber
World," November 1, 1914, page 70, in which a con-
stant pressure of hydrogen is maintained on one side
of a test piece of fabric, while air is passed over the
other side, taking with it the hydrogen which diffuses
through the fabric, which hydrogen is burned to water
and weighed.

Instead of running the test at 15° C, which is the
standard, it may be run at any fixed temperature up
to 20° C. by reducing the final result in the ratio of
15 divided by T where T is the temperature actually
used. If it is desired to run at a greater difference in
pressure than the standard SO millimetres, this may
be done for any pressure up to 50 millimetres by

multiplying the result by \ p~~ where P is the pres-
sure actually used. A diffusion sample will be cut
from each roll within 9 feet of one end.

Inspection. — All fabric going into the balloon shall
be run over a light to detect pinholes and flaws in the
threads, any such places being subsequently either
proved of sufficient strength and tightness or patched.
Inspector may require such tests of diffusion and
strength on various parts of the fabric and seams as
he may judge necessary to prove the quality required.
Every seam will be inspected when completed.

Model Test. — Each contractor for one or more dir-
igibles shall construct a model of linear dimensions
one-thirtieth the size of the balloon, made of identical

fabric, provided with suitable suspension disposed in
similar fashion to that on the full-size balloon. This
model to be inflated (upside down) with water to cor-
respond with the full-size balloon when inflated to five
times its normal running pressure. This will mean on
the model a head of water at the top equal to 1**<£
feet. Leave pressure on for 10 minutes.

Tetts on Completed Envelope. — Each envelope when
completed shall be blown partially full of air and all
fabric inspected from the inside against a light to
detect small leaks. After inflation with hydrogen at
normal operating pressure, the envelope must show a
leakage of gas less than 1 per cent, per day, with all
valves and accessories in place. Envelope, with bal-
lonets in place, after inflation with hydrogen shall be
inflated to a pressure of S inches of water at lowest
point and held there for one minute. This is three
times the normal pressure for flight, but no defects
shall be developed by this proof test.

Guaranty. — The contractor shall guarantee the
completed envelope for three months* continuous ex-
posure to the weather or its equivalent, provided this
does not occupy more than one year's time from date
of acceptance. Under a pressure test at the end of
this time the envelope shall resist without injury a
pressure of 2 inches of water at the bottom. In case
the envelope fails through deterioration to give the
specified length of service, it shall be replaced by the
manufacturer at the request of the Government and
the manufacturer shall receive compensation for the
service rendered by the first envelope pro rated on an
arbitrary value of $12,000. Reasonable care shall be
taken to keep the envelope out of the sun when not in
use, and the fabric shall be dry and cool before pack-
ing. Hydrogen gas used shall be free from injurious
chemicals or excessive moisture.

Tests shall be made of all fittings, so far as prac-
ticable, after completion and before installing- in place.
This testing shall include air and gas valves, gasoline
tanks, oil tanks, blower engine, blower, and instru-

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCOUTING TYPE DIRIGIBLES

213

ments; also means for controlling the trimming,
ballast, and emergency discharge of fuel tanks.
Samples of all wire, cable, rope, fabric, typical
seams, patches, etc., shall be broken in a testing ma-
chine.

Such other tests shall be made as are necessary to
determine that the requirements of the specifications
have been fulfilled and that all parts and installations
are suitable for the purpose intended.

Mooring Eye. — The nose shall be reinforced as
shown on the plans by means of a doubling patch of
fabric similar to that in the envelope and wood battens
about % inch by 3 inches in section equally spaced,
converging at the nose, every alternate batten to ex-
tend beyond the doubling 8 feet. An eye shall be
provided in the nose for the attachment of a mooring
line. This eye will consist of a 1%-inch metal thimble
secured in an eye splice of a four-strand manila rope.
The rope will be unlaid and the eight strands let in
beneath the doubling patch, equally disposed radially,
the ends of the strands frayed and the whole set in
cement. The breaking strength of the mooring at-
tachment shall be about 5,000 pounds.

Rip Panels, four in number, shall be located ap-
proximately as shown with a rip cord, dyed red, run
from each through light agate guides to the pilot.
By pulling the rip cord weak stops securing the end
of the panel are to break and tear open the panels
for rapid deflation in an emergency.

Grab Ropes, eight in number, shall be secured to
patches on envelopes as shown. These to be l^-inch
circumference manila rope secured to crows'-feet of
%-inch flax signal halyard stuff (braided of 8-ply
thread in 8 strands of flax twine; breaking strength,
800 pounds).

Battonets are located as shown. Their combined
volume is 25 per cent, of the total volume of the en-
velope. The relative sizes of ballonets are to be ad-
justed so that their displacements give equal mo-
ments about the center of buoyancy of the envelope
when completely inflated. The ballonets are to be
fitted with a suspension band of fabric running around
the plane of symmetry to which a light flax suspen-
sion is to be attached. This suspension holds the
ballonet in place and prevents shifting fore and aft
when flabby. Sight holes of transparent material are
to be placed in the envelope for inspection of this
suspension.

The lower part of the ballonet is to be secured to a
patch of doubled envelope fabric sewed and cemented
to the envelope. This patch when removed carries
with it the ballonet and windpipe connection. A sight
hole shall be located in the ballonet patch for inspec-
tion of inside of ballonet.

The safety valve will be located on top of the en-
velope. Construction of the valve is shown on detail
sheet. This valve is to automatically open outwards

when pressure in envelope at lowest point exceeds 1
inch of water.

The manceuver valve will be located under the en-
velope and will operate as a safety valve also, but
may be opened by means of a line to pilot's seat.

These valves are to be tested for tightness of seat
and the spring loading adjusted as stated on the detail
plan before installation.

The belly band or suspension band is to be a heavy
fold of canvas running round the lower part of the
envelope, bearing at intervals hardwood toggles for
the crow's-feet of the car suspension. This band shall
be securely sewed and cemented to the envelope in a
manner which on test is shown to develop the full
strength of the latter fabric.

Fins. — Stability of route is assisted by two horizon-
tal fins and "three vertical fins as shown. These fins
are to be 170 square feet each in area except the
vertical fin shown on top of the envelope, which will be
80 square feet in area, and are to be made up of a
light structure of steel tubing and wood with internal
wire bracing and covered with aeroplane linen treated
with five coats of dope and varnished to give a smooth,
taut surface. The fins are to be braced by wires with
turnbuckles, and crows'-feet to doublings on the en-
velope. Weight of fins is to be kept down to one-half
pound per square foot. Doubling patches shall be
fitted on envelope to secure butt edges of fins by lacing.

Rudders. — Two horizontal rudders, each 70 square
feet in area, and two vertical rudders, each 35 square
feet in area, are to be provided. Both the horizontal
and vertical rudders are to be balanced and to work
in ball bearings. These rudders are to be securely
trussed and operated by nonconducting leads (flexible
cable of flax line) passing through agate guide rings,
or ball bearing bronze sheaves as indicated on the
plans. Rudder operating leads are to be designed to
give the least number of turns so as to reduce friction
to a minimum. Fins and rudders are to be readily de-
tachable for shipment or stowage.

Insulation. — The car is to be electrically insulated
from the envelope and no valve or other operating
leads shall be of continuous wire. All metal parts in
car are to be electrically connected. Metal parts of
valves and their seats, wherever located, shall be elec-
trically connected.

Mooring Line. — A mooring line consisting of 200
feet of 2 l /i>-inch manila rope is to be provided for
carrying coiled in the car. The fixed part shall be
stopped to the envelope and the end secured to moor-
ing eye in the nose.

Steering Controls. — All steering controls shall be in
duplicate and interconnected. The vertical rudders
shall be operated by means of foot bars located as
shown on the plans, the foot bars to be fitted with
foot rests arranged to pivot so as to remain normal to
operator's thrusts. The leads are to be fastened to

214

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

the ends of the foot bar by a suitable fitting. The
horizontal rudders are to be controlled by means of
hand-wheels located on the right hand side of the
car as indicated. The hand-wheels will be arranged
to operate the leads by means of sprocket chain and
sprockets in accordance with the plans. Both hand-
wheels are to be provided with an effective band brake
so that the horizontal rudders may be locked in posi-
tion by means of an arrangement for increasing the
tension in the brake band.

Tanks shall be provided and arranged substantially
as shown on general arrangements plan, sufficient for
a 10-hour supply of fuel and oil at full power for
the motor.

The main fuel tanks shall be interconnected and so
arranged that fuel may be taken from any tank or
combination of tanks. Valves shall be operated from
the rear seat and shall be quick acting. Fuel tanks
shall be of noncorrosive material. If copper tanks
are used, they shall be tinned on the inside. Tanks
shall, before installation, be tested to an internal pres-
sure of 5 pounds per square inch and must show no
permanent deformation. Tanks shall be provided
with swash-plate bulkheads. A small plate shall be
soldered to each tank, where it may be readily seen,
showing weight of empty tank and capacity in gallons.
Each tank shall be fitted with an effective gage to
show amount of fuel in tank, and, so far as prac-
ticable, visible from rear seat. The three main tanks
shall be connected by a length of 1-inch pipe run un-
der them, with quick-acting shut-off valves in the three
branches to the tanks. A fourth valve is to be pro-
vided for rapid discharge of gasoline to lighten the
dirigible in an emergency. Each tank shall have a
handhole for filling and cleaning.

Ballast. — The water-ballast tank shall be located in
the body and be of 300 pounds capacity, and pro-
vided with means for rapid discharge from the pilot's
seat. The tank is to be made of waterproof fabric
and shall be tight when full.

In addition to trimming the dirigible by manipula-
tion of horizontal rudders or shifting air between
ballonets, small water containers are to be placed
near the bow and stern of the envelope, fitted with
spring loaded valves, and means whereby such valves
may be pulled open by the pilot. The forward tank
shall contain 40 pounds of water and the after tank
50 pounds of water, and these tanks shall be located
at the points shown in the general arrangement plan.
The forward tank should be a fabric tube placed along
a meridian with a valve in its lower after end. The
after tank shall be as flat as possible and secured in a
fabric pocket under the envelope and between the
lower vertical fins.

Tubes shall lead discharge from each tank to main
ballast tank.

Blower System. — A 2-horse-power, 900 revolutions

per minute engine of motorcycle type is to be ar-
ranged to drive through a 2 to 1 gearing a multivane
blower of a capacity of 600 cubic feet per minute at
1800 revolutions per minute against a head of 2 inches
of water. A crank is to be provided for starting the
motor which is to be accessible from the rear seat.
(See Radio.)

A wind scoop is to be arranged to supply air to the
blower, which discharges through suitable dampers
into one or both ballonets. The wind pipes to bal-
lonets are of balloon fabric and are to be 8 inches
minimum diameter. The air manifold is to be made
of sheet aluminum and provided with relief valves
spring loaded to release air at three-fourths inch of
water pressure.

Precautions similar to those stipulated for the main
engine shall be provided for the blower engine to pre-
vent flame from fire or exhaust.

Radio. — The radio outfit will be supplied by the
Government and will be installed by the contractor in
the space reserved and indicated on the plans. It
will weigh about 250 pounds and will have a generator
to be driven by the blower engine through a silent
chain and 3 to 1 increasing speed gear. A friction
clutch, to be designed so as to reduce weight to a
minimum, is to be provided by the contractor so that
the blower engine may be run idle or engage either
blower or generator.

Car. — The car or body is of standard aeroplane
type consisting of a rigid rectangular girder of spruce
trussed with wire. The motor and radiator are to be
mounted forward, with a sheet steel fire bulkhead be-
hind them ; next the pilot with all controls and instru-
ments; next the observer with duplicate controls and
radio key; next the blower and radio outfit; next a
fabric tank for water ballast; and last the gasoline
tanks for 10 hours at full power. Reserve oil and
gravity gasoline tanks may be mounted near the motor
as shown on the plans. The car is to be inclosed with
aeroplane linen except over the motor where the cov-
ering shall be of sheet aluminum. The motor com-
partment shall be well ventilated and the bottom per-
forated to prevent accumulation of gasoline in case
of leakage.

The department will supply and the contractor in-
stall a sprinkler type of chemical fire extinguisher
with nozzles located near carburetor.

The car shall have a jackstay along top and stir-
rups under bottom, as shown, to enable a man to reach
motor or gasoline tanks in the air.

The maximum propeller diameter permissible is 8
feet 6 inches.

Suspension. — The car is to be suspended from the
envelope by means of galvanized-wire cables with
breaking strength of 2700 pounds, arranged as shown.
The cables are to be fitted with means for adjusting
their lengths to equalize the load. The cables are

SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCOUTING TYPE DIRIGIBLES

215

connected to the suspension band by crows'-feet of
braided flax, %-inch signal halyard stuff, as specified
elsewhere. To carry the car when the dirigible is in-
clined the upper ends of suspension cables are con-
nected by a fore and aft stay as shown.

The suspension cables shall be connected to the
car by hooks or bolts arranged to permit ready de-
tachments.

Power Plant. — Includes engine, propeller, radiator,
starting device, gasoline and oil tanks, piping, con-
trols, gasoline and oil gages, pressure gages, ther-
mometer, power-transmission system, tachometer,
necessary shipping crates, etc., in order for flight,
and as per the following specifications:.

The engine shall be a standard Curtiss OXX-3, 100-
horsepower aviation engine, or a Hall-Scott A-7-A,
100-horsepower aviation engine.

The engine shall be provided with an effective start-
ing device, so fitted and installed that engine may be
easily started from the front seat. If hand starting
is used, a booster coil will be provided.

All oil pipes shall be annealed.

The fuel leads to fuel tanks, the control leads, and
the carburetor adjusting rod shall be provided with
suitable, safe, and ready couplings where these con-
nections have to be frequently broken.

All couplings and fittings in the gasoline lines shall
be thoroughly sweated on.

Gasoline shall be supplied from the reserve tanks
to the service tank by pressure feed.

Fuel, water, and oil service pipes will be protected
against vibration.

Oil shall be supplied to the engine pump from the
reserve oil tank by means of a hand pump operated
from the forward seat.

As far as practicable, the entire power plant should
be assembled as a unit on a rugged foundation, and
should be capable of being readily removed or re-
placed with a minimum disturbance of connections,
controls, or structural fittings.

A complete set of power-plant tools shall be fur-
nished with each engine.

Tachometers of approved type shall be installed on
the pilot's instrument board (Reliance No. D-18 with
internal counter, or equal).

A thermometer showing the temperature of the
circulating water discharge, and one showing tempera-
ture of lubricating oil in crank case, shall be mounted
on the instrument board (Foxboro transmission type
thermometer, or equal).

Each engine shall be fitted with the Bureau of Steam
Engineering standard name plate for aeronautical
engines.

The air intake opening to carburetor shall be pro-
vided with a safety wire gage sphere of generous
size to quench flame in case of backfire.

The motor shall exhaust into an effective muffler at

each side so arranged as to cool the gases and to pre*
elude possibility of flame at exit. Tests will be run
to prove the effectiveness of the muffler as a flame
quencher and if necessary wire gauze may be placed
over outlet slot.

Engine Tests. — Each engine shall, before shipment
from the factory, be subjected to a one-hour full-
power run on propeller. During this run revolutions
shall be accurately determined and recorded. Report '
of all engine tests shall be forwarded to the Bureau
of Steam Engineering.

With each dirigible the contractor shall deliver the
following :

1 ground cloth, 170 by 35 feet.

100 sand bags holding about 40 pounds of sand
each.

1 filling balloon or service gas reservoir of 700
cubic feet capacity.

5 screw stakes.

1 extra mooring rope.

200 feet filling tube, 6 inches in diameter, with con-
necting sleeve.

1 roll of each weight of fabric used.

1 fabric stitcher.

1 fabric roller.

5 gallons of cement.

100 feet of each size wire or cable used.

100 feet of each size rope used.

1 spare gas safety valve, complete.

1 spare manoeuver valve, complete. *

1 spare gas pressure manometer.

1 set of each size bolts, sheaves, guides, shackles,
thimbles, turn-buckles, toggles, or other miscellaneous
fittings used — list to be approved by the naval in-
spector.

Key to Diagbam

1 Gas Envelope

2 Car

8 Ballonet.

4* Blower Intake Pipe

5 Engine for Blower

6 Main Air Discharge Pipe

7 Air Pipe to Ballonet

8 Air Manifold

9 Operating Cord, Ballonet Exhaust Valve

Operating Cord, Butterfly Valve

1 Valve, Pressure Relief

2 Valve, Manoeuver Gas

3 Operating Cord, Manoeuver Gas Valve
4f Rudder — Twin

5 King Post

6 Leads, Steering Gear

7 Bracing Wire

8 Elevator

9 Leads for Elevator
20 Fin, Stabilizing

216

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

81 Doubling Patch

22 Car Suspension

23 Belly Band

24 Webbing

25 Ballonct Suspension

26 Nose Reinforcement

27 Rip Panel

28 Rip Cord

29 Grab Ropes
80 Weights

31 Mooring Rope

32 Sight Holes

33 Patch for Removing Ballonct.

34 Kapok Floats

35 Fuel Tanks

36 Muffler

37 Trimming Tanks

38 Operating Cords, Trimming Tanks

39 Guides for Operating Cords

40 Filling Hole and Doubling Patch

One of tbe photographs showing the extent of employment of "Blimps" by Great Britain.

Tbe Navy's kite balloon (Goodyear Type) at the PensacoU, Florida, Aviation station.

CHAPTER XXXI

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF KITE BALLOONS

By Ralph H. Upson

The kite balloon now used in such large num-
bers in Europe is a combination of two prin-
ciples, both long known to aeronautical stu-
dents — the man-lifting kite and the captive bal-
loon. A strong wind was required to fly the
man-lifting kite balloon, and an ordinary cap-
tive balloon could be flown only in comparative
calm. The kite balloon synchronizes the best
in both and takes care of either condition.

The purpose of this chapter is to impart to
the aviation section of our army and navy work-
ing knowledge of the handling of this type of
aircraft.

The apparatus is essentially an elongated
balloon, which is always kept in an inclined
position like a kite. Thus the wind tends to
lift it by blowing against the under side. This
counteracts the contrary tendency of a wind to
blow the balloon over toward the ground.

The outstanding features of the kite balloon
are shown in Fig. 1. The shape of the gas bag
is modified in such fashion that it has a mini-
mum resistance consistent with other require-

ments. The steering bag is replaced by an air
funnel, C, which is the only inflated protuber-
ance of the balloon. This carried the keel, B,
the tail cup, F, and has a value at its lower end
through which air enters to make good any de-
ficiency in pressure. In this way a compara-
tively small hole will supply all the air neces-
sary to keep the balloon well inflated.

The keel, like the funnel, is non-rigid, being
supported entirely by a proper balance of
forces. Its great advantage over the old steer-
ing bag is the fact that it presents a double con-
cave surface to the wind so that it is held in the
wind by a positive pressure on both sides at
once. In this way any tendency to yaw is
stopped almost before it starts. On the other
hand, the old type of steering bag will allow
considerable deflection or swing of the balloon
before its corrective influence is felt. In addi-
tion to this the keel has only a small fraction of
the resistance of the steering bag, is lighter in
weight, and is simpler in practical use.

The side fins indicated by A in Fig. 1 are so

218

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

shaped and disposed that they help in the sta-
bility as well as in the kite effect of the balloon.

The function of the tail cups, F, has been re-
duced almost wholly to one of dampening the
motion of the balloon in a gusty wind. Con-
trary to expectations, it was found that the form
of construction of the tail cup was a consider-
able factor in its stability.

The resistance was further cut down by mak-
ing the balloon more nearly self-contained, and
eliminating superfluous cordage and protuber-
ances.

In other balloons it was found that the gas
leakage through the valve and various appen-
dices was commonly many times greater than
all other sources of leakage combined. The
valve was therefore designed especially to pre-
vent leakage. Its size is more than ample for
all requirements of captive- or free-balloon use.
The air valves have also been made tighter and
more efficient, thereby cutting down the quan-
tity of air required to keep the balloon properly
inflated.

For maximum efficiencv, the inclination of
the balloon to the air must be calculated with
considerable exactness. If it is inclined too
much, it carries the balloon over and puts an
undue strain on the cable. On the other hand,
if the balloon is too nearly horizontal, the lift of
the wind is lost. There is a certain best in-
clination for each balloon at which it is per-
fectly steady, the pull on the cable is near a
minimum and the altitude a maximum. In or-
der to preserve this proper angle for different
conditions of use, the basket is made adjustable
so that it can be moved forward or back when
necessarv. In a 30-mile wind, there should be
no motion apparent in the basket ; the cable ten-
sion at the balloon should be less than 1000
pounds and an altitude of 4000 feet readily at-
tainable.

Location of Kite-Balloon Aerodrome

1. Select a field where there are no large ob-
structions within at least 200 feet or subtend-
ing an angle of more than 20 degrees with some
central point ; at the bottom of a shallow valley
or depression is best. Clear the ground of all

sharp objects liable to puncture the balloon.
The main pulley (8 to 10 inches diameter)
should be located at the central point unless the
usual wind is from some particular direction.

2. The winch should have a drop of at least
8 inches in diameter, or 10 inches if the balloon
is to be pulled up and down many times a day.
It should be placed about 100 feet from the
pulley in a direction to windward of the aver-
age wind. Anchor it firmly in position to with-
stand a straight pull of 3000 pounds. This can
be best obtained by bolting two longitudinal
timbers about 12 feet by 10 inches by 2 inches
on the bottom. Bury these timbers, from 1 to
2 feet deep. It is important to see that the
cable pulls exactly at right angles to the drum.

3. The anchor post carrying the main pulley
consists of four standard screw stakes, placed
pyramid fashion with the eyes screwed down on
a level with the ground. A maximum total
pull of 4000 pounds, both vertically and hori-
zontally, should be allowed for. If the ground
is not suitable for the use of stakes, a wooden
post about 4 inches by 6 inches by 5 feet, with
cross bracing of timber, must be used.

Laying Out

1. Fill about fifty bags three quarters full of
dry sand ( tied shut ) . Spread out the ground
cloth on a leeward side of the pulley with the
narrow edge about five feet from the pulley.
Place two or three sandbags on the windward
edge and peg down the corners.

2. Unroll the balloon, starting one foot from
the pulley end of the ground cloth. When un-
rolled it should be like top up and head into the
wind.

3. Any one required to walk on the balloon
should either take his shoes off or protect them
by tying sandbags over his feet. Spread a
cover over the balloon whenever possible to pro-
tect it from the sun.

4. Tie the nose rope to the main pulley post.
Pull the other ropes out to the side. Put a
screw stake or small dead man opposite each
maneuvering rope at the edge of the ground
cloth (three on each side) . Give each rope one-
half hitch through the eye of its stake and tie

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF KITE BALLOONS

J!

M V

V

FIG. 1— OfTSTAXniXG FEATURES OF MODERN KITE B AIJ.OONS.
-Keel; C— Funnel; D— Holding Cnlde; E— MnnreuverJnjr Ropes; F— Tail Cups; G— Appendix; H— Air Entrance Valve
J — tins Valve; K — Basket; L — Slain Bridle; M — Suspension Groups.

with a slip knot. Drive two wooden stakes
(about 2 inches by 1 inch by 2 feet) on each
side about 20 feet from the balloon, to which
are attached the central and rear-suspension
groups by means of scrap rope tied to the con-
centration rings. Arrange a few sandbags to
hook into the suspension.

5. Thread the main cable through the pulley
and attach to the bridle. Tie a conspicuous
rag 8 feet below the upper splice of the cable.
Lock the winch leaving the cable just slack.

6. Put the slack of the valve cord inside its
gland to within a foot of the loop. Tie the
gland about i inches from the end, and then
tie it again through the loop with breakable
cord about 2 inches from the top of gland.
Note: The cord (not the gland) should come
loose at a pull of about 40 pounds.

7. Push the rip cord up into the appendix
and tie a smooth weight of about 1 pound to the

lower end. Pull the appendix out to the side
next the gas supply, keeping out all twists.

8. See that the valve seats are tight all round.
It should start to open with 30 pounds' pull.
Pack the stuffing boxes tight. Disconnect the
valve cord (white) from inside the valve hold
and attach to the valve. Screw in the valve and
put on the cover in a vertical position. Tighten
up the screws again after a few hours. Note:
The stuffing boxes together with a bridle at-
tachment on the balloon diaphragm are pro-
vided in case it is desired to use an automatic
wire for discharge of gas. This has been the
prevailing practice in Europe, but after ex-
haustive tests we recommend in preference the
method hereinafter described.

9. See that the manholes are properly (se-
curely) closed. The gas manhole must be
fixed to pull out from below. The lacing over
the air manhole mav be left till later.

220

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

10. All preparations will have to be made
with unusual care if there is much wind. If
possible, postpone inflation if the wind exceeds
20 miles per hour.

Inflation (by Bottles)

1. Lay 12 bottles side by side in a row with
the nozzles about one foot apart and pointed
up. Lay the manifold above (on its stand)
and put one man on each of the six branches.
Attach the manifold at every other bottle.
Each man after discharging his bottle takes the
next full one. As fast as the bottles are emp-
tied they are replaced with full ones by other
men, two on each bottle. Put the caps back
on the empty bottles and mark to distinguish
the empty bottles from the full ones. In dis-
charging a bottle, open the valve slowly as far
as it will go. After the gas has apparently
stopped it will start again after a few seconds.
Leave the connection on till after it has done
this twice. Then give the word and all quickly
shift to the next bottle. The whole operation
should not take more than three minutes for
each set of six bottles. In cold weather a bottle
must be opened more slowly to prevent "freez-
ing up."

2. Let out on the maneuvering ropes as the
balloon inflates. The fabric should be kept
just tight enough to prevent flapping and cav-
ing in from the wind. Hang sandbags in the
suspension if necessary. Do not exceed two
bags on each suspension patch.

3. Before the balloon is full, let a little air
blow into the ballonet. Then test the safety
valves by filling the balloon with gas. When
the air is all forced out put still more gas pres-
sure in and see that the balloon pressure indi-
cator works properly. This should open after
the air is all out and when the fabric is just
tight enough to sound like a drum when hit with
a pencil. Try the gas valve to see that it opens
and seats properly. See that the small cord
running down from the gas manhole is securely
tied into the suspension by slip knots.

4. Let the balloon up about five feet from the
ground. Disconnect the inflation tube. Let
the rip cord out and put back enough slack in-

side to bring the upper loop about one foot be-
low the opening. Tie a breakable cord
through this loop to the appendix opening cord.
Tie another breakable cord to the second ap-
pendix opening cord through the second loop
and through the toggle on the balloon at the
front of the keel. This should bring the appen-
dix flat up against the balloon. Each closing
cord should pull loose at about 40 pounds.
Look in the window and see that the inside
cords are in order.

5. Attach the basket and pull the dampening
(lower) rope around until the toggle is cen-
tered over the basket. See that the tackle is
free from twists. (See special instructions on
folding the parachute.) Connect up the ob-
serving and signaling apparatus. Put one bag
of sand (tied up) in the basket. Tie the end
of the tail cup adjusting rope to the concentra-
tion point above the basket. Bring down the
valve and rip cords through their respective
rings on the upper ropes, and tie just within
reach.

6. Attach three tail cups to loops closest to
the balloon. See that the tail cup bridle pulls
free without twisting.

Ascension

1. All men at their posts (ground position),
observer in the basket. Release the holding
ropes from the concentration rings and remove
all bags. Untie all maneuvering ropes at the
stakes and pull taut. All men pull ropes from
position near their respective screw stakes.
Then wait for a lull in the wind, and at the com-
mand "play out" the balloon is let up gradually.

2. The winch is kept locked until all the load
is transferred to the cable. If the command to
shift is not given sooner, the air position is
taken gradually (without command) as the for-
ward ropes go out of reach. Then the ropes
are pulled out of the stakes and as far as pos-
sible to the sides. The object of this is to pre-
vent yawing or side pitching as the balloon as-
cends.

3. Let the cable out until the basket just
clears the ground. Then at the command
"Drop Basket," the men at the basket let go

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF KITE BALLOONS

H.M.S. Canning, one of many balloon ships
of the British Navy. (See chapters on
"Kite-Balloon Ships and Hunting Sub-
marines with Aircraft.")

and scatter to the help of any posts that need
them most. The cable is played out, and the
men at the rear ropes follow, just enough to
keep the balloon from pitching. The ropes
must be played out in this way to the very end
(fast if there is much wind) . Then at the com-
mand "Ready," "Let Go," every one let go at
once. If instead of "Let Go," the command
"Slack" is given, the ropes may subsequently be
let go, without further command, as they go out
of reach. Simultaneous with this command the
cable is let out fast for about 100 feet and
slowed up very gradually to a normal speed.
Until this point has been reached all men stay
under their ropes as closely as possible so as to
seize them again if necessary (when the com-
mand is given).

4. Do not let the average speed of ascent ex-
ceed 500 feet per minute unless the valves are
set to open easier. When the balloon is sent
up for the first time, it is better to limit the
speed to 200 feet per minute.

5. The man in the basket must watch the
pressure indicator while ascending. If it
opens, let out gas until it closes again. After
once attaining the working altitude, the pres-
sure may be disregarded unless the sun sud-
denly comes out warm.

6. Experience is the best guide to the proper
angle of tilt for various conditions. This can
be varied by shifting the basket, either in the
air or on the ground. At the proper angle of
tilt, the balloon is steady, the angle of cable is
near a maximum, and the tension in the cable
near a minimum (about 600 pounds at 80 miles

per hour.) Fifteen degrees is the usual stand-
ard when riding nearly full at normal altitude.
The basket tackle needs very little attention
after the proper setting has been once ascer-
tained. The balloon will automatically adjust
itself through a considerable range of wind and
altitude. The tail cups must be set so there is
sufficient play in the bridle to meet all condi-
tions. Keep the tail cup adjusting rope just
tight.

7. Some device for measuring the pull on the
cable is very desirable. A properly calibrated
scales, midway between the wind and the pulley,
will answer the purpose if allowance is added
for the weight of cable in the air. The tension
at the balloon should not be allowed to ex-
ceed 8000 pounds.

Pulling Down

1. If the wind is strong and has changed ab-
ruptly in direction, it is best to move the ground
cloth and stakes to correspond. All men at
their posts (air position), follow the ropes wher-
ever they go, and seize them near the end when
the command is given.

2. The main principle in holding the balloon
and basket at first is to dampen or check the lat-
eral movement, but not absolutely to prevent
it. The men should move slowly with the bal-
loon and keep it headed into the average wind.
The cable is reeled in fast until the basket is
about 10 feet from the ground. Then wait till
the basket has stopped swinging before bring-
ing it to the ground.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

3. The basket man grasps the basket
firmly as soon as the top edge comes
within reach (without command). If
it is merely wished to change passen-
gers, ascension is made again immedi-
ately without pulling down farther.

4. For putting in gas or anchoring,
however, men take ground position, a
signal is given to the engine, and the
cable is reeled in. The ropes in the
meantime are pulled in correspond-
ingly. The chief of section or corporal
must signal the engine driver to stop
while there is still 10 feet clearance of
scale. Great care must be taken in this
not to run too far and break the cable.

5. When the men at either post 4 or
6 get within reach of their own screw
stake.therope is given one complete turn
through the eye and held until'the oppo-
site grasp can be attached. The chief
of each group then pull out the slack
while all others pull down from above the ring.
All pull down as rapidly as possible, unless one
side or the other is ordered to slow up to get
the balloon level. If there are not enough men
to pull it all the way down at once, tie the
ropes to prevent them from slipping, then con-
centrate all the men in succession on each rope
until the balloon is down within reach. Then
hook the bags into the suspension and if neces-
sary tie the concentration rings to stakes. Dis-
connect the fins at the bottom and furl them up.
See that the main cable has one or two feet of
slack in it. The balloon is now in a position to
receive gas and it can be left this way in a light
wind.

6. If the balloon sways around much it must
be brought flat and tight onto the ground where
it catches the wind less and is also less readily
seen from above. Plenty of sand bags should
be hooked high into the suspension (two in each
patch or in the splice below). If left in a strong
wind the end of the rip cord should be brought

Photograph taken from one of the kite balloons protecting Venire from
attacks by the Austrian ships on the Adriatic.

Observation

1. It is not the purpose here to go into the de-
tails of observation. "We will assume the fol-
lowing fundamentals :

The target can be seen from the balloon.
The ballon can be seen from the gun.

2. The observer in the balloon takes :

(a) The height above ground by barome-
ter.

(b) The distance and direction of target
(by position finder).

(c) Correction data on subsequent firing.

3. The observer at the gun takes:

(a) The distance and direction of balloon
(by balloon sight) .

(b) The final corrected firing data, (by
mechanical plotter).

4. Observer at the base of cable takes:

(a) Zero barometer reading.

(b) Correcting, for windage and temper-
ature.

out and tied with plenty of slack to one of the

stakes. It is always worth while to cover the 5. All data should be taken as near simul-

balloon if it is to be left anchored for any ap- taneously as possible. Whenever there is time,

preciable time. Emergency anchor straps may at least one check reading should be taken, and

then be thrown over cover and all. more than that if the height of the balloon has

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF KITE BALLOONS

substantially changed. A height reading is
taken before and after each set of position read-
ings.

6. For transmission of data from the balloon
a combination wireless telephone and telegraph
is immensely superior to ordinary telephone for
all altitudes. Written messages and diagrams
may be sent down the cable by means of a simple
carrier device that can be readily installed.

7. If it is required to make quantitative ob-
servations in a very strong wind, some form of
wind-shield is desirable, and for very cold
weather an enclosure for the entire car and some
form of heater. There should always be a
means of quick exit, however.

8. If the balloon is full, watch the gas pres-
sure during any considerable influence. (See
Paragraph F. under "Ascension.")

9. Whenever the wind exceeds 40 miles per
hour, the balloon should be watched carefully
and brought down as soon as reasonably pos-
sible. It is not necessary always to carry nn
anemometer, however, as it is possible with ex-
perience to judge the wind quite closely. If the
balloon is tilting to a considerable angle the
tension of the cable can be relieved by shifting
the basket forward. This is especially ap-
plicable when descending from a great height.

Inflating u free balloon fur instruction iit a United Stiitcs nnval trnininjr aeronautic school "mhuch!

ballooning is mi essential part of a course in operating kite balloons.

224

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

10. It is best policy for the observer to wear
his safety belt constantly so that he can jump
into the parachute and jump at a moment's
notice. When nearing the ground in a para-
chute drop, it is best to detach the parachute
from the safety belt again. One can then let go
immediately on striking the ground, and roll
over unimpeded.

Use as Free Balloon

1. The ordinary position of the appendix in
the air is shown by the dotted lines in Fig. B
(balloon captive).

2. If the balloon breaks away and it is wished
to stay with it, the first thing to do is to pull
open the appendix by pulling on the rip-cord.
This is one step further than is shown by the
full lines in Fig. 1. There are then three more
safety cords on the inside which guard against
accidentally pulling open the rip panel. At the
same time break the string on the valve cord
gland and pull the valve open hard. (A man's
entire might on the valve cord is not too much.,)
Hold it open until the balloon just starts down.

Standard hydrogen pas balloon cylinders designed to contain 2
cubic feet of hydrogen at 1800 pounds per square inch.

3. When nearing the ground check the de-
scent if necessary by throwing out the ballast
and dispensable equipment. Break the remain-
ing safety strings on the rip-cord. Pull out the
rip-panel all the way when about 50 feet from
the ground.

4. The above operations cannot be handled
properly without some previous free-balloon ex-
perience.

5. There are no extra instruments required,
but a short piece of very light silk ribbon will
be found convenient for gaging the vertical mo-
tion through the air.

Inspection and Repair

1. Ropes. — All ropes must be systematically
inspected every day of actual use and worn
parts replaced. When the main cable starts to
wear, it may be kept in use by reversing, end
for end.

2. Leakage. — It should not be necessary to
replenish the gas to the extent of more than 800
cubic feet per day average when new, or 600
cubic feet per day at any time. If the leakage
exceeds this (with proper allowance for temper-
ature change and valve operation) the first
thing to examine is the valve and its connec-
tions. See that it seats absolutely tight and is
set open at the proper time. Examine the staf-
fing boxes, the appendix, manhole and valve
gland, which may also be sources of serious
leakage if not properly secured. One hole W«
inches in diameter will let out more gas than
escapes by diffusion through the entire fabric
of the balloon. The greatest care must also be
taken to prevent air getting in. Gas can al-
ways be replaced, but the only way to get ab-
out is to deflate. With good management this
should not be necessary for at least two months.

3. Gas Replenishment. — This should be done
at some regular time every day. Economy in
gas is largely dependent on the judgment that
is used in putting it in. There is rarely any
need of filling the balloon full on the ground.
Allow about 1000 cubic feet of air in the bal-
lonet for each 1000 feet of altitude to be at-
tained. (The total capacity of the ballonet is
5000 cubic feet.) An allowance for expansion

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF KITE BALLOONS

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from the heat can be made if the gas is put in
during the night (maximum 2000 cubic feet of
air). A small cord running down through the
ballonet serves as an air gage. This should be
calibrated for some particular set of conditions.

4. Fabric. — The balloon fabric should be ex-
amined frequently and carefully for holes and
deep scratches, especially where it comes in con-
tact with the ground and where the ropes are
liable to rub. If any are discovered, cut a
patch to fit, wash both surfaces with gasoline on
a cloth. Apply two light coats of cement ( C85
tire cement will do if there is no balloon cement
available) both to the balloon and to the patch,
allow each to dry about five minutes, press
down the patch and roll it down hard against
some hard smooth surface. Especial care
should be taken to make the edges tight. To
detect pin holes and other small leaks inflate
about one quarter full of air and get inside.
Examine the fabric, block by block; by this
means small holes are readily seen against the
light. This should be done after every defla-
tion.

5. To Reinsert the Rip-Panel. — Get two
quarts of Goodyear balloon cement. Clean the

old cement off of the edges with gasoline. Al-
low the surface to dry, then apply a coat of ce-
ment to each surface with a brush. Allow to
dry five minutes and apply another coat. Let
dry for five minutes more before sticking to-
gether. During the process keep the cemented
surface out of the wind and sun as much as pos-
sible. Start at the bottom of the panel and
work up toward the top along one side, being
careful not to scratch the top edge out of place.
Roll down hard. The other side of the panel
in the same way. Dry the panel at the top and
see that it pulls off properly. Cement up tight
again. When finished there should be a 2^
inches lap cemented all around the panel, except
for the extreme end, where it is a little wider
and brought up a blunt point about 1 inch be-
low the stick. Cover the seems on the outside
with two coats of cement 1% inches wide. Lay
down our specially prepared taping over this
and roll it down hard. Allow to stand for sev-
eral hours before rolling up.

6. To Clean. — If any oil gets on the surface,
rub at once with gasoline. Ordinary dirt may
be removed with water. If it is wished to paint
the balloon, a special paint must be used, which
will not injure the rubber.

Packing Up and Carrying

1. Deflation. — Pull gas manhole wide open
and let the balloon rise slightly at the rear.

The packing nut, spring nut, stem and plug are made of high-
grade brass. Stem spring and stem tang are tool steel, hard-
ened and galvanized, thus preventing any possible corrosion.
Plug seat is a special, soft, tough alloy and assures a perfect seat.

226

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Any small quantity of gas that is trapped at the
front can be let out through the valve. ( Never
use the rip-panel except in an emergency.)
Open the air manhole as soon as it gets within
reach. After the air is expelled there may be a
residue of gas against the ballonet diaphragm at
the rear. This may be worked back through the
air manhole. Be very careful to see that it is
securely closed again before leaving.

2. Folding. — Remove the valve carefully and
put it away. Tie the valve cords to the loop in-
side. Be careful that there is nothing on the
balloon that will cut the fabric. If the rip-
panel has been used, pull off the fold tape from
the edge before folding. Lay balloon with the
rip-panel up. Pull the bottom fabric smooth
so that both sides of the suspension are near the
outer edge. See that the air funnel is laid flat
and as far toward the front as possible. Grasp
the balloon at each side and fold one third of
the way across. This will bring the suspension
patches on top and all loose ropes can be pulled
over onto the top of the balloon.

3. Stowage. — Be sure the fabric and cordage
is dry before packing. Keep covered in a dark
room or den of moderate temperature. Sun-
light has a destructive influence and the balloon
should not be left in the sun any more than
necessary.

4. To Fold Parachute. — Place the top ring
of parachute as smoothly as possible in the bot-
tom of the case. Pass a light breakable cord
directly across the top of this ring, from one side
of the case to the other, so that it will hold the
ring from coming out and also from twisting.
Hang the case up by its handle from some high
point, if possible so the entire fabric of para-
chute will hang clear. Pull all the opening
parachutes free, pull all the ropes into the cen-
ter, and the fabric in pleats to the outside.
Place a piece of light cardboard in between the
ropes at a point about two feet below the bottom
of the cloth. This cardboard is notched at the
edge to receive the ropes and serves to keep them
from getting tangled together. Now starting
at the top of the parachute pull it down evenly
on all sides, and tie it every six feet with a short
piece of cord. When you get down within six
feet of the bottom bring the small opening
parachute up to the outside and tie another
cord around near the top of the opening para-
chute.

The United States Navy has not, at date of
writing, issued regulations for tests to be passed
by kite-balloon pilots. Those issued by the
Army may be adopted. These are printed in
the "Textbook of Military Aeronautics."

CHAPTER XXXII
EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

The motor is the principal factor in aviation.
The aeroplane is like a kite rising when moved
against the air, but being heavier than a
kite must come down as soon as motion ceases.

The ideal aero motor must be light, so it can
be easily secured to the light frame of the aero-
plane and will use little of the aeroplane's carry-
ing capacity ; powerful, so it can develop a cer-
tain speed and afford a large carrying capacity ;
reliable, so it will give an even speed and not
stop during flights and force the aeroplane
down; and economical in regard to fuel, thus
avoiding the necessity of carrying large loads
of gasoline or oil for long-distance flights.
Having these qualities, it does not matter if it
be rotary, i.e., having the cylinders disposed
radially ; star shape, rotating with the crank case
around a stationary crankshaft; or reciprocat-
ing, i.e., having the cylinders disposed vertically,
V shape, horizontally, and fan shape, remaining
stationary while the crankshaft rotates. In the
first the propeller is fastened to the crank case
which revolves with the cylinders, in the second
case it is fastened to the crankshaft.

The aero motor is practically but twelve years
old. In the period from 1900 to 1905 there
were no engines adaptable for use in flying ma-
chines on the market ; those available at the time
being bulky and weighing over twenty pounds
per horse-power. It was this lack of a suitable
motor that kept the early experimenters of fly-
ing machines to the ground, while the use of a
good motor enabled the Wrights to make the
first flight in 1903. But the Wrights did not
make public their invention and it was not until
1906, when the Antoinette motor was developed
to 50 horse-power in France that flights could
be made in Europe, the Antoinette being used
in 1906 by Santos-Dumont to make the first
aeroplane flight ever made in public. Since
then the evolution of motors has been constant.
Nearly all the automobile and motor-boat

motors have been put through a general rehaul-
ing to make them lighter, strong, more compact,
and reliable, to suit the peculiar requirements
of aircraft.

By July, 1909, nine different aero motors
were used, rating up to 60 horse-power, their
weight per horse-power ranging from five to
eight pounds, as follows :

Motor

Antoinette
Anzani

Curtiss

E. X. V. .

Gnome

R. E. P. .
Renault . .
Vivinus

Wright

Lbs. per
horse-power

5%
6

Users

Used by Latham in all his flights in 1909
Used by Bleriot in Cross-Channel flight
in 1909

7 Used by Curtiss in Gordon-Bennett race

1909
6y 2 Used by Bleriot in many flights
6y 2 Used by Farman in record of 4:6:25

and others

6 Used by Robert Esnault Pelterie

8 Just put on the market in 1909

8 Used by Sommer in record of 2:27:15

in 1909

7 Used by Wright Brothers in all their

flights.

A year later the number of motors had in-
creased to over twenty, ranging in horse-power
as high as one hundred; a 100 horse-power An-
toinette being used in Latham's monoplane, and
100 horse-power Gnome motor being used in
the Bleriot monoplanes in the Gordon-Bennett
race of 1910. The weight of these, as well as
with the rest of those already mentioned, had
been reduced from one to two pounds per horse-
power, and they still lead par excellence.

By 1911, the number of motors had increased
to over fifty, about thirty being European and
twenty American. The Gnome was still in the
lead, but it had close competitors in the R. E.
P., Nieuport, Green, and Hall Scott engines.

During the period from 1912-14 aero motors
developed rapidly, largely as the result of the
impetus given in the nature of cash prizes of-
fered by various organizations, especially in
Germany, where the Kaiser offered a prize of
50,000 marks, and in Great Britain, Italy,
France, and Russia.

227

228

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The advent of the Mercedes in 1914 made
possible a number of remarkable records.
Reinhold Boehm, a German aviator for in-
stance, on July 11 made a flight of 24 hours and
12 minutes without stopping. He flew an Al-
batross biplane equipped with a 6 cylinder, 75
horse-power Mercedes motor. On July 14,
Heinrich Oelrich rose to a height of 26,246 feet,
flying in an Albatross biplane equipped with a
100 horse-power Mercedes motor.

The Development of Aero Motor* in the
Great War

Germany supplied all the aero motors for the
Central Powers in the Great War. The Ger-
man aero motors are for the most part Mer-
cedes, and Benz, 100-150 horse-power, Argus
150 horse-power.

The status and history of the development of
the European aero motors used by the Allies
may be gathered from the following quotations
from the official report of the investigation of
the British Royal Flying Corps rendered at
the close of 1916. Italy has been using largely
the Fiat and the Isotta Fraschini.

"The position at the outbreak of war was that
the engines available did not exceed 80 horse-
power. Soon afterwards there was the Can-
ton-Unne (Salmson) of 140 horse-power. All
these have since been discarded. The Royal
Flying Corps also got within the first few
months the 90 horse-power R. A. F. and the
120 horse-power Beardmore — the 90 horse-
power R. A. F. in by far the largest numbers.

Later the Royal Flying Corps obtained the
100 horse-power Monosoupape and 110 horse-
power Le Rhone, the latter in small quantities.
Later still, the 110 horse-power Clerget, but
substantially the highest horse-power engine
which the Royal Flying Corps had in quantity
for many months was the 90 horse-power R. A.
F. Quite recently it has had the 140 horse-
power R. A. F. the 160 horse-power Beardmore
(originally known as Austro-Daimler, and now
sometimes as the Austro-Daimler-Beardmore),
and the 250 horse-power Rolls-Royce. So far
only a few of these higher-powered engines have
been delivered ; but the output is increasing, and
there are now other high-powered engines in
sight. The Royal Flying Corps has, in effect,
been carrying on with engines the bulk of which
did not exceed 90 horse-power, together with a
few very efficient 100 to 120 horse-power en-
gines.

"The state of affairs thus disclosed was ob-
viously unsatisfactory until recently, especially
in view of the fact that the Germans have had
from the first engines of considerably higher
power, notably the Mercedes.

"In order to understand the position, we must
go back to the spring of 1914. There was then
held a naval and military engine competition
for engines of from 90 horse-power to 200 horse-
power, with a prize of £5000 for the best en-
gine. There were 67 entries. Of these 28 were
of engines from 125 horse-power to 200 horse-
power. There was only one of the latter.
Only nine engines came through the test. The
prize was won by the 100 horse-power water-
cooled Green engine. The highest-powered
engine to come through was one of 120 horse-
power.

"The R. A. F. before the war was designing
a 200 horse-power, water-cooled engine, and had
proceeded some way with the drawings by Aug-
ust, 1914. General Henderson, who was one of
the judges at the engine competition, was of the
opinion that high-powered engines would be re-
quired. He hoped, having regard to the en-
tries for the competition and the high standing
of some of the competitors, that private firms
would proceed to develop and perfect high-
powered engines, and he stopped the R, A. F.

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

229

The famous six-cylinder Mercedes Engine which has mount so much to German aviation.

designs and handed the drawings over to the
Rolls-Royce Company and Messrs. Napier.
The former declined to proceed on the R. A. F,
lines, hut designed independently the 250 horse-
power Rolls-Royce engine, which is just begin-
ning to be delivered. The Napier Company months* delay ought not to have occurred, al-

the 140 horse-power R. A. F.,
which could not have taken
the place of either the 110
horse-power Le Rhone or the
200 horse-power Hispano-
Suiza.

"We are, however, not so
much concerned to see whether
the rhetorical charge of 'too
blind faith' is made out as to
see whether any blame at-
taches to the directorate for
the delay and whether the
Royal Flying Corps suffered
from it.

"In the case of the His-
pano-Suiza engine, negotia-
tions for its production were
entered upon promptly and a
draft agreement was sent to
the company on Novembers, 1915. The answer
miscarried, and the matter dropped until Feb-
ruary 22, 1916, when the directorate reopened
the negotiations and carried them without de-
lay to a successful issue. We think the four

proceeded with the R. A. F. designs in collabo-
ration with the R. A. F., and their joint efforts
have produced a 200 horse-power engine, which
is now being tested.

"The alleged delay in ordering better engines
occurred in respect of the 110 horse-power Cler-
get, the 110 horse-power Le Rhone, and the 200
horse-power Hispano-Suiza engines.

"All these engines are admittedly good, and
all have now been ordered in considerable
quantities.

"There was, we think, no undue delay in or-
dering the 110 horse-power Clerget engine.
There was very considerable delay in the case of
the 110 horse-power Le Rhone engine, and
slight delay in the case of the 200 horse-power
Hispano-Suiza.

"We do not think that the delay in ordering
the Le Rhone and the Hispano-Suiza engines
was attributable to the fact that the directorate
was trusting to the R. A. F. to produce equiva-
lent or better engines. The only engine of its
own which the R. A. F. was engaged upon was

though in this case no real harm accrued. The
Hispano-Suiza engine was originally one of 150
horse-power. They were experimenting with
one of 200 horse-power. The latter was bought

General Vehicle Company's Gnome motor.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

for the Royal Flying Corps, and this
engine was not in a sufficiently ad-
vanced stage to have been procured
earlier.

"The history of the 110 Le Rhone
engine is different. This engine was at
first, and in 1915, procured through the
French Government, but the French
wanted it for themselves and were un-
able to continue to supply the Royal
Flying Corps. It is a difficult engine
to build, and a builder had to be found.
This took time. Another fact was that
it was doubtful whether both the 110
Clerget and the 110 Le Rhone would be
wanted and some time was consumed in
comparing the two engines. In the end
the Le Rhone was ordered, but after a
lapse of some twelve months or more
from the time when there was difficulty
in procuring them from the French
Government. We think this delay was
too long and that it would have been an advan-
tage to the Royal Flying Corps to have been in
possession of this engine in quantities earlier.

"It is the fact that the R. A. F.-Napier 200
horse-power engine has been ordered in large
quantities and that these orders were placed be-
fore the engine had been proved. General

50-60 horse-power Clerget
the spidi

'yoking engine showing the gearing by which
i Fig. 13 Is rotated.

to luck. This engine was being designed sim-
ultaneously with the 250 horse-power Rolls-
Royce, upon which the directorate did not
gamble. We think the reason why the R. A.
F.-Napier engine was selected for the gamble
was because it was — at any rate, partly of R.
A. F. design, and that this is an instance in

Henderson explained to us that in war time one which great reliance has been placed on the R,

must sometimes gamble on an engine and trust A. F."

American Aero Motors

The development of American aero motors
has been held back by the smallness of the de-
mand at home, and the fact that the Allies
would only place orders with concerns having
facilities for large productions, and these ex-
tensive facilities could only be developed
through the placing of large orders.

Therefore up to the close of 1916 only four
types of motors were in use on United States
Army and Navy aeroplanes, and only these
four types could be considered as manufac-
tured products, the Curtiss, the Hall Scott, the
Sturtevant, and the Thomas.

A number of other very promising American

180 horse-power eighteen-cylindcr I* Rhone engine. Both motors Were developed during 1915—16.
valves lire operated by one rocker, and a "push-and-pull" rod. ,. , • .j . 1 . , -

cast iron liners are shrunk into the cylinders. American motors can be said to be equal to-day

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

231

When the war was well under way the Amer-
ican motor makers suddenly found themselves
in a very embarrassing position. The German
Government refused to allow the Krupp works
to export any of their product. For years
American manufacturers had depended on the
Krupp works for certain brands of steel, and
suddenly the supply was cut off. The Krupp
works had contracted to supply this country
with large quantities of this high-power steel,
and now it is kntwn that this was really done
for the purpose of preventing the American
manufacturers from attempting to make it.

The motor makers were facing the ruin of
their business when they found that the small

Curtiss V-2, 800 horse-power motor.

to the best European products. The crucial
period for American motors — and with Euro-
pean motors as well — was 1915, where large or-
ders for motors were placed, but no Krupp steel
was obtainable in manufacturing them.

The Krupp supremacy in the manufacture of
certain types of steel, particularly the alloys
used in the manufacture of crankshafts and
other vital parts of motors, where the greatest
strength, combined with the least weight, is de-
sired, was maintained in past years, and, until
the beginning of the war, by economic competi-
tion made possible by the fact that the Krupp
people were subsidized by the German Govern-
ment and could, therefore, underbid other
steel concerns who had to depend on straight
business for their existence.

The Curtiss twelve.

Front end of the new A- 5 Hall-Scott engine, showing the small
head resistance offered by this type of engine.

stock in hand was the only steel that they had to
go on with, and they issued calls for help to the
various big steel mills. The result was that
practically every one of the greater plants set
to work to duplicate, if not better, the German
product. Some of them worked for ten months,
others for the last six, and after numberless ex-
periments, at last six of the great mills suc-
ceeded in turning out an alloy that is, if any-
thing, superior to the best that ever was ex-
ported to this country from the Krupp works.
Until the fall of 1915 the crankshaft and

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

other high-grade steel parts
turned out by the American
steel mills were of very uncer-
tain quality. Only about one
piece in ten really lived up to
the requirements, and the mo-
tor makers were having a seri-
ous time with it. Now, how-
ever, they can be sure of what
they are using. Aviation mo-
tors are like the high-priced
watches. One one-thousandth
of an inch makes all the differ-
ence between a motor and a
piece of junk, and steel that
will stand the terrific strain is
an absolute necessity.

The accompanying table gives the character-
istics of American motors being manufactured
or developed at date of writing.

* Sturtevant eight-cylinder "All

fications for motors for aeroplanes on which bids
were opened at 10 A.M., September 14, 1915.

Bids Kill be considered on motors differing in de-
tail from those specified if complete specifications and
drawings are submitted and if, in the opinion of the
Government, the motors will give equal service to those
specified.

All parts to be of the best material and workman-
ship. Engine to deliver not less than 100 brake
horse-power for Item 1 ; 120 brake horse-power for
Item 2; 140 brake horse-power for Item 8.- 160 brake
horse-power for Item 4 ; with muffler attached. Items

Thomas ncromotor, showing self-starter, double magnetos,
Tachometer drive, stabiliser drive, gasoline and oil cooling clr-
Clllatinfr pumps.

Specifications for Aeroplane Motors Issued
by the Navy Department

The office of Naval Aeronautics, Department
of the Navy, issued the following general speci-

Sturtevant 140 horse-power

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

r ~' i tfl

. ^* ^"5

*-r-

8-cj'lindcr aviation motor.

1, 2, and 8 will drive propellers not greater than 8
feet in diameter. They shall be well balanced and
produce no excessive vibration at any power. To be
capable of being throttled down to 20 per cent, of the
revolutions per minute for full power. The weight
of the engine complete, with ignition system, magnetos,
carburetors, pumps, radiator, cooling water and pro-
peller, not to exceed 5 pounds per brake horse-power.
Engine to be fitted with some type of compression re-
lease as a means of stopping it. To be fitted with a
practical means of starting from pilot's seat when in-
stalled in an aeroplane. All moving parts not lubri-
cated by a splash or forced lubrication system to he
readily accessible for inspection, adjustment, and oil-
ing. Ready means shall be provided for checking and
making adjustment to the timing of the engine. All
parts to be machined all over where possible. Fillets
to be of ample radius to insure strength. To have an
accurate and positive lubricating system which will in-
sure a uniform consumption of lubricating oil pro-
portional to the speed of the engine. All parts sub-
ject to corrosion to be protected from the effects of

salt water. To be fitted with an approved attach-
ment for obtaining the revolutions per minute. To
be provided with means for preventing fire in case the
engine is turned upside down. A hand throttle lever
and connections to carburetor to be provided that can
be applied for convenient operation by the pilot. This
lever to be designed with a positive means of retaining
it at the throttle adjustment desired by the pilot. AH

A recent Fiat motor.

Van Biuret aviation motor.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Atwood 12-oy Under motor.

bolts and screws without any exception to be pro-
vided with an approved positive r; .ans for preventing
backing out due to vibration. No soft solder to be
used in any part of the power plant.

late gliding, and to run in this position for two min-
utes ; then to be leveled and run at full power for one
minute. Engine to be then stopped, and after five
minutes a similar test to be repeated, and this shall be
continued until eight separate runs have been made.

S. Motor to be run at full power for one-half hour
under conditions approximating operations in the
aeroplane in a heavy rainstorm.

Note. — No adjustments or alterations shall be
made during any of the tests or intermissions. The
failure to complete any test in a satisfactory manner
shall require that that set of tests be made again.

The engine shall be capsized while running to de-
monstrate the means provided to prevent a fire.

During all tests an accurate record shall be kept
of the following:

Total number of revolutions for each test.
Revolutions per minute for each test.
Lubrica ting-oil consumption for each test.

ACCEPTANCE TESTS

1. To determine power revolution curve,
and fuel and lubricating oil economy.

2. To be run for five hours at full power,
using one supply of lubricating oil.

3. Immediately upon completion of sec-
ond test, to run a similar full-power run for
five hours.

4. One motor to be selected at random
from lot to make eight separate and distinct
runs in the following manner : Engine to be
started by the use of the starting gear: to
be run for the first five minutes at 95 per
cent, of full power while inclined at an angle

of 15 degrees to represent climbing; then to be run
for 22 minutes at loads varying between 75 per cent,
and 95 per cent, of full power; then to be throttled
down to 20 per cent, of full power revolutions per
minute, and the engine to be tipped degrees to simu-

WUconsin mint ion

Trebert Revolving Engii

Gasoline consumption for each test.
A record of thrusts for tests 2 and 9.

At the successful completion of these tests the en-
gines shall be broken down and inspected. No parts
shall show undue wear or deterioration, and the
weights and balance of the separate parts shall be in
conformity with the specifications.

SPECIFICATIONS FOB PARTS

Lower Crank Case. — To have an oil capacity for
five hours running at full power, or fitted with an ef-
ficient automatic device to keep constant supply of oil
at pump suction. To be fitted with a sight gage to
show the height of the lubricating oil. Oil system to
have a pressure gage capable of being mounted on an
instrument board, and means to turn this system on
and off at will. To be fitted with drain plugs. If
possible, to be capable of removing from engine with
engine installed on engine beds. To be fitted to pre-
vent oil leaks at joints and connections. All fillets
to be of ample radius to insure strength.

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOE

i ! li! c^

Upper Crank Case. — To be fitted with
an efficient system of relieving pressure
in the crank case. Wherever possible
where webs are fitted which cannot be ma-
chined they should be of uniform thick-
ness. Wherever attachments are made
to the upper crank case they should be
sufficiently reinforced to insure strength.
All fillets to be of ample radius to insure
strength.

Cylinders.— To be fitted to take two
Bpark plugs. To be cooled to prevent ex-
cessive heating of valves. Cylinders to
be counterbored to prevent piston wear-
ing a shoulder at either end of the stroke. They
shall be secured to the crank case so as to prevent
oil leaking. To be fitted with an efficient detachable
muffling system. To he attached to crank case with
sufficient safety factors to insure against cylinders
blowing off. Cylinder holding down bolts to be sub-
jected to a uniform load on all members. Cylinders
to be machined on the outside as well as inside.

if!

^2, ' -A

Detroit gas turbi

Spark plugs to be accessible and removable without
removing any engine parts. Spark-plug points to ex-
tend into the combustion chamber. Any pockets in
the head of the cylinder where burnt gas might collect
to be avoided. Water jacket, if used, to be of a non-
corrosive metal.

Pistons. — To be balanced and finished so that ho-
mologous parts shall be of uniform thickness. Suf-
ficient thickness shall remain after the piston ring
grooves have been cut to insure ample strength,
Means shall be taken to prevent an excess of oil en-
tering the combustion space. Wrist-pin hearings to
he brushed with bronze. Means to be provided to
prevent wrist pin or bushings from touching the
cylinder walls. All pistons to be of the same weight
and to balance at the same point.

Piston Rings. — To be of the leak-proof type, made
in two parts, and not less than % inch wide.

Beecher horizontal motor.

Connecting Rods and Bearings. — They shall be ma-
chined all over and balanced with liners (I-beam cross
section preferred), crank-pin bearing cap and crank-
pin bolts and nuts in place. All connecting rods to
be of the same weight and to balance at the same
point. Crank-pin bolt heads to be countersunk into
connecting rod to prevent turning. Ends of wrist pin
to be beveled.

Crank Shaft and Mam Bearings. — Crank shaft to
be carefully balanced and to he machined all over. If
the crank shaft is made with a flange, to which it is the
intention to secure the propeller, this flange shall be
at least % inch thick. Special attention should be
given to the strength of the crank webs.

Cam Shaft. — To be machined all over and balanced.
Cams to be case-hardened to prevent pounding out.
To be fitted with some means to decrease the amount
of wear and friction on the cams and on the end of
the push rods.

Push Rods, Valve Gear, Rocker Arms, Etc. — To be
machined all over. To have an accurate and positive
means of opening and closing valves. Clearance be-
tween valve stems and actuating mechanism of both
intake and exhaust valves to be capable of adjust-
ment. All parts to have sufficient strength factor to
insure against distortion, such as bending of rocker
arms and push rods, if employed. Rocker arms to
be machined all over.

PBMH

■

L

wMn

1

y

f^fr

The BOO horse-power Maybach.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

Aviation motor of the Maximo tor Company.

Intake Manifold and Carburetor. — To be smoothly
finished on the inside. No bolts or lugs to
pass through or extend into the inside of
the intake manifold. Sharp turns or bends
to be avoided, and the distance from car-
buretor to any intake port to be approxi-
mately the same. Means to be provided for
beating the mixture after entering the in-
take manifold. The use of two carburetors
is preferred. The carburetor to be so
lateced as to provide for the minimum
amount of vibration (i.e., as near the line of
the crank shaft as possible). The face of
the cylinder to which the intake manifold is
secured to correspond exactly to the cross
section of the air-manifold flange. Means
shall be provided for making accurate and
permanent adjustments to the carburetor,
and means to prevent these adjustments
changing due to vibration. Means for ad-
justments from pilot's seat shall be pro-
vided to care for changes in altitude.

Magnetos. — Two magnetos to be used,
either one capable of developing 90 per cent,
of full power. To be waterproof. Positive
means shall be provided for securing magneto leads
to the distributor.

Leads to spark plugs to be waterproof.

Angle of advance to be controlled from pilot's seat.

Circulating Pump. — To have a capacity sufficient
to cool the engine when running at full power in air
of 72° F.

A quotation (separate) on a list of selected spares
to be included in the proposal.

All bids must contain the bidder's guaranty in re-
gard to replacement of defective parts.

The following data and plans, in duplicate, must
be submitted with all bids:

(a) Motor particulars: Make, model, cycle, bore
and stroke, piston displacement, actual horsepower,
speed, number and arangement of cylinders, cooling,
lubrication, types of bearings, types of valves, method
of starting, make of spark plug.

Carburetor : Make, number.

JSO horse-power Packard n

Gyro rotary aviation motor.

Magneto: Make, number.
Radiator: Make, number disposition.
Propeller: Make, diameter, efficiency.

(b) Material of the following parts: Cylinders,
pistons, jackets, crank shaft, cam shaft, connecting
rods, valves, all bearings, crank case.

(c) A weight schedule of the following: Power
plant complete: Motor, propeller, transmission, radi-
ator, cooling water, piping, etc.

(d) General arrangement plans: Plan, profile, and
elevation. Curves of brake horse-power and revolu-
tions per minute, also oil and gas consumption in
pounds per brake horse-power per hour at full power
(certified).

(e) Photographs of motor (five views — top, both
sides, both ends).

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

Knox 13-cylinder motor.

ChristofFerson 135 horse-power motor.

(f) A price list covering replacements for one year
after delivery of the motor.

Alternate Bide. — The contractor will meet all de-
tailed requirements of the original specifications, ex-
cept in so far as they are modified by his bid.

Proposals must state distinctly whether the motors
proposed are (1) as called for by the specifications,
(2) as by modified specifications, (S) as by substitute
specifications. *

Each of the duplicate proposals must also be ac-
companied by full and detailed descriptions and draw-
ings or illustrations showing the details of the motors
it is proposed to furnish.

The name of the maker of the motors, the net weight,
and the space occupied must be stated. * Failure to
comply with this requirement will render the bid liable
to rejection.

If the motors proposed vary in any part from the
specifications, special mention must be made of such
points apart from the general description. When

variations are not stated clearly and in detail, the
contractor will be required to meet all details of the
original specifications when the motors are inspected
for final acceptance.

Inspection to be made at place of manufacture un-
less otherwise directed by the Bureau of Steam Engi-
neering. Prompt inspection can be arranged if bid-
ders will state on the blank lines below the name of
the manufacturer as well as the place where the ma-
terial will be manufactured, giving the exact address.
- When the bidder and the manufacturer are the
same, the exact address of the manufacturing estab-
lishment should be given, and not the office address.

If this information cannot be furnished in his .bid,
the contractor must, within five days after receipt of
notice of award, furnish the Bureau of Steam Engi-
neering with the foregoing information.

All handling of material necessary for purposes of
inspection shall be performed and all test specimens
necessary for the determination of the qualities of ma-
terial used shall be prepared and tested at the ex-
pense of the contractor.

If contract is sublet, the contractor and subcon-
tractor shall furnish the inspector representing the
bureau concerned in their district quadruplicate copies

Martin 12-cylinder motor.

General Ordnance Company's 200 horse-power motor.

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

End view Duesenlieiy U-cyliiidcr iutii engine.

of all orders placed with manufacturers for materials,
stating when possible the purpose of each item or-
dered and the specifications for the same. In all cases
these orders shall contain the mimlier of the original
contract of which these constitute suhorders.

In connection with the inspection of the material,
if incorrect information is given, thereby causing one
or more useless trips by the inspectors, the Govern-
ment reserves the right to charge the expense of such
useless trips to the contractor, and further inspec-
tion at the mills may be denied the contractor, at the
option of the bureau.

THE SPECIAL ATTENTION" OK BIDDER* IS INVITED TO
THE FOLLOWING CONDITION'S:

In accordance with the requirements of the Naval
Appropriation Act approved June 30, li>14, every

Orlo model 0-8.

bidder under this class, to receive consideration for his
bid, must agree, if called upon to do so, to furnish the
affidavit given below from a responsible memlier of the
firm bidding or officer of the corporation. In case the
bid is submitted by an agent or representative of the
manufacturer, this affidavit must be furnished by
the bidder and also a separate affidavit by the manu-
facturer whose product the bidder proposes to fur-
nish ; and in the case of a corporation a certified copy
of the record of the action of the board of directors,
showing the appointment of the officer making the
affidavit, shall be appended.

, being duly sworn, deposes and

says : That he is the of company, as

evidenced by the accompanying certified copy of the
record of the action of the board of directors, and as
such it is his duty to know and he does know and is
thoroughly familiar with the business arrangements,

Aslimuscn twelve-cylinder

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

289

The Sterling-Sunbeam twelve.

and relations of said company; that he has carefully
examined and is thoroughly familiar with the follow-
ing provisions of the naval appropriation act ap-
proved June 80, 1914:

"That no part of any sum herein appropriated shall
be expended for the purchase of structural steel, ship
plates, armor, armament, or machinery from any per-
sons, firms, or corporations who have combined or
conspired to monopolize the interstate or foreign com-
merce or trade of the United States or the commerce
or trade between the States and any Territory or the
District of Columbia in any of the articles aforesaid";
that said company is not engaged in any such combi-
nation, agreement, conspiracy, or understanding as is
prohibited by the above-quoted portion of said act;
and that said company agrees to furnish whatever ad-
ditional information the Navy Department may re-

quire to satisfy itself as to the status of the said
company with respect to any combination, agreement,
conspiracy, or understanding of the kind contem-
plated by the said act-
Sworn to and subscribed before me this day
of

Notary Public.
hereby agree to furnish the above affidavit or affida-
vits if called upon to do so by the Government.

The name of the bidder must be inserted in the above
blank space. Failure to comply with this require-
ment will render the bid informal.

The contract awarded under this class will also con-
tain the following provision :

The Isotta-Fraschlni aeronautic

used extensively by the Italian navy, 200 horse-power.

240

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

This contract having been awarded, conformably to
restrictive provisions in the Naval Appropriation Act
of June SO, 1914, upon the express understanding
that the party of the first part has not combined or
conspired to monopolize the interstate or foreign com-
merce or trade of the United States or the commerce
or trade between the States and any Territory or the
District of Columbia in structural steel, ship plates,
armor, armament, or machinery, and the of

said company having furnished the Secretary of the
Navy with an affidavit to this effect, it is hereby fur-
ther covenanted and agreed, and this contract is upon
the express condition, that in case it be ascertained
at any time after the signing hereof that false repre-
sentations were made in said affidavit with respect to
the requirements referred to above of said statute,
this contract may be annulled in whole or in part by
the Secretary of the Navy at his discretion.

EVOLUTION OF THE AERO MOTOR

TABLE OF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEADING AMERICAN AEROPLANE MOTORS

Maker

Uodtl

ff.P

i-IV-'iv

p.u,

Ci/lindtrt

Carbureter

»«~

Oiling

WgM
fit lot

Silt starter

Arromarino '.'.'.'.'.'.'.
Arromarine .

AGO
11 12

100

ioo

70

iio

90

ioo

70

a oo
eo

00
TO
140

BO

110

100
00

do

BOO

G3

TO
«0

05
150
1ZS

105

1 s-,
\ '■::■.

76
]-,n
180

■ :>*:>;•

■■■ \ >. i '=
:s * t m >i
m*i%

*bi*i"
4 IS

414x5
4**0

4Vlx5
6 XT

414x0
-t%*7
£ <5

3 x5

4 4x314
414 <3*

4(4.8

4fcxS

5 xT
514*7
5 x5

■»h!4*

4*x5

4*x7

5"*5ii

414*5*
4 14x5

414xfi

4 XO
4HX0

5 xB

a ion
ijwti'

« 14x414
4 x514

J 10%

i%*r>>s,
414x6*

4 14x5*

4 14x0

J. 72x5.1
4.72x5,1
1^x7

Him

1400
1400
BOO

1400
1400

1400
1400

1500

12 GO

12 GO
1000

iaoo

l"".|

1400

1150

1800

'■jr.:',

6-Verticel
12-V

8-I'oruonlQl
llMIi.riM..!.:
12-60" V

s-oo; v

12-00° V

12-60' V
4-Vertical

8-Vertical

.> Hov.lv. ^

lo-Revoi™*

B- Revolrl ng
7-Rfvol.:i--

ii lil'VOlvillg

1 -Vertical
«■ Vertical
6-V

ia-v

7-HoriiontaI

4- Vertical
ii Vertiea.
8-V

{?) Zenith
(2 Zeo.lh
M *"»'h

12) Dixie

13) : >,i ..-
Dixie
Dl.le

Fore* t pitta
Force tp.otb
Forcefeed
Force feed
Forte a pi tab

424

340

II .

-Delto ■ electric

M-l

t
8-B

"Bitot" electrte

OX

OXX

V-2

(2) Zemlb
(2) /. ...ih
121 Zenith
(2) Zenith

Double
■■*; ,.;

12) Barling

Force

Force"

Force

II.
1 ,-■.

860

In

-u

372

;:■■

Slietd
S-A

L. M.

K
L
A-5

I'ennerd

Vanbaid
Special
ctperial
Zenith

Spra,
8pra«
(2) Zenith

Zenith

& tptub

Emer,

Si ogle

Single
(2) Dixie

Bomb
Boarb
(2) Utile

(21 Dixie

!k:

800

1400

J-8

(21 Zenith
(2) Zroltb

Met

Porn

Revolting

B-4
ABT

MtMer or Zenith
Hatter or Zenith
Matter or Zenith

Berllog or Kowb
Ii. . .i l- or Botch
Berllog or Botch

111

15- A
08
C-13

ax
oxx

E 12

" Coal a lor

D-8

5A-B

TIioium 8

Ht-vtilvint-
FB

1200

BRfTolrtng

ME

1500

1-1 Oil

1 -n.iii

10 Revolving
8-BO" V

fl Vertical

^Vertical

L«e OldOeld

Zenith

<2)>enitb

Rayfleld
Rev Arid
Karfleld

A t». tar Kent

(2) DUle

(2) Dixl tor" Botch
<3J Optional
(2) Optional
12) Optional

Force -\ o-.i

Oil t» cat
Oil In gat
Oil to

221

17'

760
125
880

891

Orio

Packard

Rnueennerger

;; Delro" elenrlo

12 (m

12-80* V

8-V B0°

Special

Zenith

Zenith

Boarb or Dixie
Boacb or Dixie

Force

Force
Force

1 MM

tat

514

826

STB
860

Btortevant

•Crittenarn"
■Ortttooaen"

Thomas Mor«e

J -III.

lLli.m
1800
1400
1400
13S0

1400

1450

8-80' V
BBO'V

le-Horiwnta:
8-V

a-»o° v

8 Vertical
12 80° V
4-Vertical

8-V

fl- Vertical

Zenith
Zenith
Zeollh

(2) Splitdorf

(2) Spl.lrl.irt

12) Delro

Force
Fnrre
Force iplaeh

I'r -lr.,.. -■

■'•rtatcnaeo"

13) Boacb

Force

815

HiBpnnn

Sllii..— 11
Il>4i>.in<j

M.irlm

Zenith
Zenith
Cleodel

Clandel

Double

(2) Boarb
(2) Kphtdorf

12) tiplitdorf

nn«rh or Men

J vfrrV M
lpced
Pressure ft
xplnsh

S,,l„.,:

Wright-Mania

Wright- Man in

t. Magneto

Wrieht-Mnrtin . . .

Note: Blank a;

AERONAUTICS IN RELATION TO NAVAL A

By Naval Constructor H. C. Richardson,

Reproduced through the Courtesy of the Bulletin of Naval Architects ant

The most intimate point of contact between
aeronautics and naval architecture exists in the
design of floats for aeroplanes, and I shall con-
fine this paper to that subject, although the
question of stream-line forms and the pressure
and flow of air on such forms and on flat and
cambered surfaces is also closely related to
naval architecture.

Early in 1911 work was started at the model
basin at the Washington Navy Yard, with a
view to the development of floats for aeroplanes.
This work has been constantly followed up by
making tests of model floats of all descriptions,
and particularly with models of floats actually
furnished, or proposed, for use with naval aero-
planes. In addition to this, series of models
embodying variations of particular features
were tried from time to time, covering a wide
range of possible useful features, and, where
such models showed sufficient merit, full-size
construction has been carried on, and the full-
size floats have been given tests in actual serv-
ice. A detailed account of the complete series
of tests would be too voluminous for reproduc-
tion, and would cover many defective types, so
that I shall enter only into a general discussion
of types and the requirements for floats for
naval aeroplanes.

It appears well to point out at once the dif-
ferences existing between the conditions of use
of aeroplane floats, and those met in the use of

speeds near the g
of the bottom of tl
portant, due to a j
is present if any
flow are presented

It might readilj
that what proves
hulls would nature
plane floats, but tl
operate seriously
droplanes for aei
plane floats carry
sequently less dee]
present in general
flow of the water
planes. Besides
projected sudden!
water with any bit
is frequently the
which must be abl
or get-aways, aero:

The most promi
ditions of operatic
of the greatly redu
Plate A indicates
under ordinary (lis
conditions governii
On this plate curv
of a simple hull
Curve B represen
hull run at disp

AERONAUTICS IN RELATION TO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE

blades clearly increases this advantage so far as
resistance is concerned. But the performance
of such blades is decidedly tricky, and although
they have been used in a few instances they are
considered tricky and unsatisfactory and un-
suited to use in rough water.

A matter of considerable interest is that two
different states of flow may be encountered at
the same speed, depending on the manner in
which the speed is approached. Thus, an aero-
plane getting under way will require full power
to attain the planing condition at about 25 miles
per hour. However, once planing speed has

the curved bow and buttock lines was sufficient
to drag the float down into the water until the
deck was flush with the original surface, and a
complete glassy sheet of spray was lifted sev-
eral feet clear of the surface of the basin. The
resistance was abnormally high. This effect in
modified form has been found in several types
of floats and in several instances has produced
failure of designs, or seriously affected their
performance. The effect may be readily un-
derstood by suspending a spoon, holding the
end of the handle lightly between the fingers,
and then letting the bottom of the bowl of the

been attained, it is possible to ease off the power spoon touch a stream from a hydrant.

very decidedly and still maintain planing at a
lower speed.

When using water blades to assist in planing,
a critical condition appears, and, if the blades
are heavily loaded, this causes a sudden failure
of lift as the blades approach the surface.
When this happens the flow suddenly breaks
from the back of the blade, causing a sheet of
spray to rise at about 60 degrees to the surface
of the water, and this appears to be independ-
ent of the sharpness of the edge of the blade
itself. Following this failure in lift, the float
then settles quickly until the original flow is re-
established, when the blade again lifts as before
and proceeds to follow the cycle of performance
just described.

The suction effect referred to was discov-
ered in an attempt to reduce
frictional resistance of the float
to a minimum by the use of a
parallel middle body having
semi-circular midship sections
with ogival ends. This form
behaved admirably at moderate
speeds, but when the get-away
condition was approached, the
model, instead of planing, indi-
cated a strong suction effect and
proceeded to lift sheets of spray g
well clear of the surface.
Finally, at the get-away condi- g
tion, with the model counter- &
weighted to a zero displacement \
and just in contact with the sur- "
face, the suction influence of

Having considered the special conditions
which affect aeroplane floats, as distinguished
from those affecting displacement forms, let us
now consider what is required of aeroplane
floats.

When adrift the floats must provide buoy-
ancy and have sufficient reserve of buoyancy to
provide against loss due to a damaged compart-
ment.

Sufficient water-line inertia and freeboard are
required to provide initial and reserve stability
in a strong wind in the open sea. This problem
is unusually high position of the center of
gravity and of the requirement of keeping the
wings and propellers well clear of the surface,
and of keeping the center of gravity close to
the center of lift. Those inclinations produce

1

i'W

,

—

'

/

—

U>

5

\

/

i

\

-■

-■

"'.

X

\

~

■■■-

■•-'

\

....

....

.-■

X

.-._-

f^

---

:

■

~~-

-..

7

-■

•-

-

*

244

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

a rapid movement of the center of gravity,
which must be exceeded sufficiently by the re-
sultant change in the center of buoyancy.
Sufficient initial stability must exist to provide
against the force of the wind on the extended
wings, which may be rolled to strong lifting
angles.

When drifting it is desirable that the aero-
plane should head into the wind. This is diffi-
cult to attain bv control of form and mav re-
quire the use of a sea anchor.

Under way at moderate speeds the aeroplane
must steer readily in all directions and be able
to manoeuver in close quarters so as to get
alongside the ship.

Water rudders are not alwavs successful on
such short floats as are usual, and are objection-
able from handling the stowage points of view.
If the water rudder is a part of the air rudder,
action becomes confused in a cross wind, and
sharp handling is necessary when the water rud-
der breaks clear of the surface.

Under way at high speed, particularly near
the get-away speed or landing speed, the bow
must have sufficient bearing power to prevent
nosing under in a rough sea or badly judged
landing. The form must also be such as to
avoid undue pounding and the throwing of
spray into the propellers.

In order to avoid the requirements of exces-
sive power to drive the floats, planing should
begin at moderate speeds — in the neighborhood
of 25 miles an hour in a calm. Planing is
readily attained by the use of large areas of
planing bottom, but too rapid planing is not de-
sirable, and a compromise is required because of
the different water speeds involved when get-
ting away in a calm or when heading up or
down wind. If too much planing is present,
the aeroplane may be tossed off rough water at
less than flying speed, or before the air controls
become effective. This alwavs results in severe
pounding and may cause the aeroplane to re-
turn to the surface in a dangerous attitude. If
after planing is attained the attitude of the float
relative to the surface can be modified, the wing
can also be modified, and the actual get-away
becomes controllable within limits. This lat-
ter feature is very desirable.

When getting away or landing, it is ex-
tremely desirable that the forces acting on the
floats should be moderate and act with small
moment arms about the center of gravity, so as
to introduce moderate disturbing forces and
require a minimum use of the air controls
and maintain the proper attitude of the aero-
plane.

In the air the floats should present a mini-
mum resistance and interfere as little as pos-
sible with the flow of air to the supporting sur-
faces and the air controls. Thev also should
not introduce disturbing influences on the center
of pressure of the aeroplane, as this is also in-
volved in the equilibrium of the aeroplane in
flight.

All of the preceding qualities must be at-
tained to as high a degree as practicable in
floats, which at the same time must be rugged
enough to stand severe punishment on the sur-
face and still be of the highest possible construc-
tion. The solution is necessarily a compromise.
Buoyancy and stability require forms and di-
mensions which conflict with the best aerodyna-
mic forms and the requirements of moderate re-
sistance and weight. Planing in flight also re-
quires a form of bottom which does not readily
meet stream-line requirements.

At the model basin at the Washington Navy
Yard, a speed of over 15 knots is available; this
admits of the use of one-ninth size models for a
get-away speed of 45 miles per hour, and this
size model is generally used.

The first condition to be provided is that of
loading the model to the displacement corre-
sponding to the speed. The assumption is
made that the lift of the wings increases with
the square of the speed. This is only approxi-
mately correct, but serves well for the purposes
of comparison. It is not exact, for the atti-
tude of the aeroplane is dependent on the
amount of air control existing, and whether it
is sufficient to overcome or modify the effect of
the forces acting on the floats and thus obtain
control of the angle at which the air surfaces
act. As these effects cannot be anticipated, or
the control be determined or applied, this as-
sumption does not appear unreasonable, and
the comparison of model and full-size per-

246

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

comparison appears to apply satisfactorily, and
it also appears that dimensions proportioned to
the displacement have planing power in pro-
portion to the displacement, assuming the same
get-away speeds in both cases and that the loads
correspond to speeds.

Many forms and dispositions of floats have
been proposed and tried, and for inland waters
several successful forms now exist, but for work
in the open sea no form is yet known to have all
the required qualities.

The first success was attained bv Curtiss with
floats of an exaggerated blade form, but these
were not as satisfactory as the normal rectangu-
lar section float, having a skidform profile.
This is a simple and successful form for inland
work, and it seems to matter little from a re-
sistance point of view what form of bow curve
is used. An examination of the curves of Plate
C will show the close agreement in performance
of bows having widely different forms of curva-
ture. Various other forms of bows were tried
— convex, concave, flat sloping bows, corrugated
bows — and all show essentially the same char-
acteristics.

The influence of steps has been tried — one,
two, and up to six. From a resistance point of
view, it appears unnecessary to provide more
than two steps for aeroplane conditions. The
first break is usually placed nearly under the
center of gravity, and the second forms the
stern of the float. If both steps are inclined in
the same sense a biplane float is formed, but if
the after step rises relative to the forward one,

it more nearly approaches the monoplane or
single-step form, which has desirable qualities.
This is the form which has proved so successful
in the flying boat and is the form used in model
No. 1844, whose resistance curves have already
been referred to. Ventilation of the steps
facilitates quick planing and is useful, but is not
essential if there is ample reserve of power.

Interference between twin floats at the sepa-
ration usual in practice appears inappreciable,
except at very low speeds.

Flat-bottom floats pound heavily and the flat-
bottom-step type porpoises strongly, unless it is
handled verv nicelv even in smooth water.

The introduction of a moderate V-bottom
greatly reduces the shock of landing on smooth
or rough water. All straight V's throw a
strong sheet of spray at the bow. This sheet
of spray appears to be independent of the true
bow wave. It can be suppressed by the use of
hollow V-lines at the bow, but this form is diffi-
cult to build strongly and has had steering tend-
encies when trimmed by the bow or when mak-
ing a skidding landing or get-away. A simpler
method of suppressing this bow is the use of
mud guards, so-called for obvious reasons.

The V-bottom also greatly reduces the dan-
ger of sticking a wing under on a skidding land-
ing, or when running at high speed across the
wind.

The use of fine lines at the bow or stern is not
very general, because of the need of longi-
tudinal stiffness. Such lines steer badly, and
there is some evidence of the suction effect be-
ing present. It is not improbable, however,
that a compromise between such lines and the
V-bow may work out in solving the sea-going
problem.

In construction details in this country the
boat-builders' influence is just being asserted.
The principal builders have followed a box-like
construction not disposing of their material to
advantage.

In recent efforts to develop a stream-line
form of floats embodying as much as practicable
the requirements enumerated, the following
features have been developed:

Plate D shows views of these floats in differ-
ent stages of construction. The general form

AERONAUTICS IN RELATION TO NAVAL ARCHITECTURE 247

is as nearly stream line as practicable, having a
curved deck comprised of two-ply spruce, ap-
plied diagonally, one across the other, with cot-
ton sheeting and marine glue between the plies.
This construction eliminates the usual deck
joints and provides the arched form with diago-
nal bracing, continuous from chime to chime.

Through the center of the float a longitudinal
truss provides the backbone of the construction.
Two-ply bulkheads support the float attach-
ments, and the principal bulkheads are tied to
each other and to the step by a two-ply fore-
and-aft bulkhead built into the center-line
girder. These bulkheads are bound by oak ribs
and intermediate ribs of oak support the top
shell.

The bilge stringers and the keelson are con-
tinuous, the step being formed by tapered liners.
The step is of oak, as when grounding, or when
planing at high speed, the loads are concentrated
at the step. The bottom is two-ply spruce, the
inner ply running athwartships and the outer
ply running diagonally outboard and aft from
the keel to the bilge stringers.

Cotton sheeting and marine glue are used in
all two-ply work and the plys are held together
by special clinch nails of brass.

The bottom is supported by the keel and
bilge stringers and an intermediate longitudinal
which are in turn supported by the step and
bulkheads. The stem and stern pieces are of
spruce, shaped to take the longitudinal mem-
bers and rabbeted to receive the shell planking.
The system of bottom planking and longi-
tudinals eliminates the use of bottom frames
and really provides continuous framing in the
planking itself, similar to Hands' original V.
bottom construction. This type of bottom
planking appears resilient and strong.

In assembly all butts are covered with glue.
All woodwork is given two coats of shellac as
soon as it is in place, and is Anally given two
coats of varnish to prevent the absorption of
moisture.

All boundaries of the bottom are sheathed
with brass strips set in marine glue. This af-
fords protection and insures water tightness.
The float attachments are locally reinforced
and strengthened to transmit the loads to the
important members.

The method of construction involves the
use of a wooden form shaped to the molded
lines and cut into sections to allow of re-
moval.

248

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The center-line girder is next assembled
with the bow and stern blocks and the step.
This is then assembled with the form in which
the slots for the ribs and the bilge stringers
have already been cut. The frames and string-
ers are then bent and set and faired flush with
the surface of the form. Next the inner ply
of planking, which has already been shellacked
and varnished on the inner face, is applied and
secured to the frames and longitudinals by
means of screws. Steaming is unnecessary.
In some cases it is necessary to humor the sharp
curvatures at the ends by the use of hot water,
applied with a swab.

This first ply of planking is then coated with
marine glue and the sheeting is applied, fol-
lowed by the second ply of planking, which is
treated with marine glue as fast as each piece is
shaped. The second ply is secured in a man-
ner similar to the first ply. The seams of the
first ply are traced on to the second ply in pen-
cil, for the purpose of laying out the nails se-
curing the two plys together. Once the second
ply is laid, these nails are driven at intervals of
about two inches along the margins of both plys
of planking, the ends of the nails projecting
into the wooden form. The form is now re-
moved, the nails are clinched, and additional
quilting nails are systematically driven and
clinched. In the meantime the bulkheads and
bottom planking have been assembled roughly
to dimensions on a flat slab. The bulkheads
are now neatly fitted and inserted and secured
to the frames by screws and glue. Next, the
intermediate longitudinals are placed and se-
cured and all special bracing and fittings for the
float attachments are placed and the bottom
frames of the bulkheads secured. The bottom
planking is now carefully fitted and the drain
plugs installed in the proper locations. The
hand holes and the holes for the ventilating
tubes are laid off, cut, and reinforced, and then
the bottom planking is applied and secured.

The ventilating tubes are next secured. The
entire float is now turned over to the painters,
who carefully sandpaper the surfaces and apply
two coats of shellac and two coats of varnish.
After this is done the step casting, edge strips,
false keels, mud guards, and deck fittings are ap-
plied.

Each of these floats, designed for 1000 pounds
displacement and 60 per cent, reserve buoyancy,
weighs, complete, 125 pounds. The principal
dimensions are: Length, 15 feet; maximum
beam, 24 inches; maximum draught, 14 inches.

The floats illustrated have been used in serv-
ice with very satisfactory results. The aero-
dynamic properties of these floats are good.
They have the least resistance when the deck is
inclined at — 3 degrees to the wind, and in this
position have no lift ; consequently, they present
a minimum disturbance in the equilibrium of the
aeroplane.

It may seem queer that metal floats have not
come into general use. There are several
reasons for this, however, the principal reason
probably being that the form of floats is as yet
nowhere near standardized, so that metal con-
struction for special cases would prove exces-
sively costly. But another reason is that when
the attempt is made to build floats of the dimen-
sions required on weights which compare favor-
ably with wooden construction, it is found that
the metal itself is so thin that it lacks the re-
quired stiffness to preserve its form under serv-
ice conditions; further, that this thickness pro-
vides too little margin for the effects of corro-
sion, particularly in salt water; and, in particu-
lar, the bottom itself would require an elaborate
system of support in order to prevent it bend-
ing badly under the heavy pressures encoun-
tered in service. However, as the number of
aeroplanes in service becomes greater and the
form of floats becomes to a certain extent stand-
ardized and larger, it is probable that metal con-
struction can be satisfactorily solved.

CHAPTER XXXIV

AERODYNAMICS— EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR

By L. Marchis

Professor in the Faculty of Sciences, University of Paris, France.
(From the Second Annual Report of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics)

Classification of Experimental Methods

1. REACTIONS EXERTED BY THE AIR ON A BODY
IN RELATIVE MOVEMENT WITH IT

When a body is in movement relative to the
air with which it is surrounded, it is subject to a
system of forces to which is given the name of
"reactions exerted on the body by the air."
These reactions are variable, especially as re-
gards (1) the form of the body, (2) the posi-
tion which it occupies in relation to the sur-
rounding medium, (3) the various circum-
stances of its movement (time elapsed from
origin of movement to present moment — veloc-
ity relative to the air) , and, finally, (4) the mass
of the fluid which surrounds the body in move-
ment.

We shall not develop in detail the difficulties
presented by each of these problems, of which
certain have received only very imperfect solu-
tions.

We shall, in what follows, consider only the
case of a body surrounded completely by a great
mass of air, relative to which it has a movement,
established a long time previously, and of which
the velocity and direction are constant and
readily determined.

The reactions exerted by the air on the body
in movement relative to it are reduced to a force
and a couple. We shall assume that the body
under experiment possesses, at the least, a plane
of symmetry, thus eliminating the couple from
the reactions of the air and reducing them to a
single force, to which we shall give the name of
"resistance of the air on the body in movement
relative to it."

When we consider the movement of the bodv
relative to the air which surrounds it, we have

not only in view a movement of translation, but
also a movement of simple rotation and likewise
a movement of rotation combined with a move-
ment of translation. In other words, we shall
study here the problem of the propeller as well
as that of the wings of an aeroplane.

2. MANNER OF PRODUCING THE MOVEMENT OF

A BODY RELATIVE TO THE AIR WHICH

SURROUNDS IT — BODY MOVABLE

Various experimental methods may be util-
ized in order to produce the movement of a body
in reference to free air.

In an indefinite mass of air, at rest as a whole,
the following types of movement may be given
to the body:

(a) A movement of rectilinear translation;

(b) A movement of rotation about the axis
of a mechanism;

(c) An oscillating movement, as in the case
of a pendulum.

The methods by means of some form of me-
chanism or by means of a pendulum have been
but little employed in France and we shall omit
special reference to them.

The method employing the motion of transla-
tion may be applied in two forms :

( 1 ) The body is allowed to fall freely in air,
as calm as possible.

( 2 ) The body is carried on some form of car
which is moved in calm air.

In France the method of free fall has given
rise to important investigations made by MM.
Cailletet and Colardeau and especially by M.
G. Eiffel.

The method by means of a car is now utilized
by the Aerodynamic Institute of Saint-Cyr, at
the laboratory of military aerostation of Chalais-

249

TEXTBOOK OF XAVAL AERONAUTICS

Photograph showing the arrangement of the model of an aero-
plane when being tested at the United States Navy tunnels. The
model is curried by a steel spindle which extendi up through the
top of the tunnel to the weighing balance which is placed overhead.
Far about two-thirds of the length in the tunnel the spindle is cov-
ered by a mask of stream-line form. This mask is secured to the
ceiling of the tunnel and reduces the force acting on the spindle it-
self, and thus the spindle correction. The weighing: balance con-
sists of a weighing scale on the platform principle having three
axes, two of them at tlie same horizontal line 61 inches apart, and
the third vertically over one of the first, 48 Inches above it. When
a model is set at a given angle, the movements acting about each
of tlie.sc axes are measured by weighing them on the scale. With
this data it is possible to compute horizontal and vertical compo-
nents of the force acting on the model, that is, the drift and lift,
and also to compute the line of application of the farce. Tests
are usunlly made at speeds of 40 miles an hour. At this speed and
at the angle of least resistance an ordinary aeroplane wing model
has a horizontal resistance of something less than one-tenth of
a pound. It is therefore necessary that the balance should be
capable of weighing a force with accuracy to about %ooo tns of ■

The large size of the tunnel makes it possible to test full size
radiators for aeroplane motors and comparative tests have re-
cently been made on several types both as to air resistance and
cooling cup ei city.

Meudon, and also by M. the Duke of Guiehe.
At Saint-Cyr and at Chalais-Meudon, the car is
composed of a carriage moving on rails. M. de
Guiehe employs an automobile as a carrier.

A variant of the method of the car has been
installed at the laboratory of military aviation
at Vincennes. On a stretched cable a little hang-
ing car rolls, carrying, attached below it, the ob-
jects under test with the necessary instruments.

The dimensions of the bodies on which the ex-
periments are carried out may be of the order
of those which are utilized in aviation itself.
In other words, it is possible to operate upon
equipment as used in actual aviation, or at least
presenting dimensions differing but little from
those used in practice.

From this point of view the method by dis-
placement through the air opens up a field of in-
vestigation more extended than the method in
which an artificial current of air is employed.

3. MANNER OF PRODUCING THE MOVEMENT OF

A BODY RELATIVE TO THE AIR WHICH

SURROUNDS IT— ARTIFICIAL

CURRENT OF AIR

It is possible, in fact, to realize in an entirely
different manner the relative movement of a
body through the air.

Instead of moving the body under test, a fixed
position is given to such body placed in an arti-
ficial current of air.

The body may then be disposed in the free
air in front of the orifice through which the air
enters under regulation by means of suitable
devices. This method has been employed by M.
Rateau.

The body under investigation may also be
placed in an inclosure or integral part of the
apparatus for the regulation of the current of
air. It is placed, for example, in a part of a
large cylindrical pipe which receives a current
of air produced by a fan and of which the veloc-
ity, at a certain distance from the walls, has
been rendered sensibly parallel to the pipe.

This method, furthermore, may be subject
to certain variations:

(a) The body under investigation alone is
placed in the inclosure in the interior of which
the artificial current of air is produced. The
apparatus for measuring the reactions of the
air are on the exterior of this inclosure, their
connection with the interior being made through
the solid wall which limits the conduit.

This method is known under the name of the
"tunnel method." It has not been largely em-
ployed in France. There exists at the present

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 251

time at the Aerodynamic Institute of Saint-Cyr
a tunnel of which the practical use has been in-
terrupted by the present war.

(b) The apparatus employed for determin-
ing the circulation of the air is enlarged into a
chamber of suitable size, traversed between two
of its parallel walls by a cylinder of moving air.
On the outside of the latter and within the cham-
ber are located the experimenters with the
necessary measuring apparatus.

We propose to call this the "Eiffel method."

In France this method has given very com-
plete results. It is for us the characteristic
method in connection with the use of an arti-
ficial current of air.

From the point of view of the convenience of
carrying on the experiments, especially in large
numbers, the last method is superior to the
method by displacement in free air. The lat-
ter demands, in fact, that the external air shall
be as calm as possible. This condition can only
be realized on certain days and then only for

certain hours of a given day. If along the
right-line path of the body under investigation
the wind should have everywhere the same in-
tensity and the same direction, due allowance
might be made for its existence.

But many investigations, notably those of M.
Maurain at the Aerotechnic Institute of Saint-
Cyr, show that at any given point in the air
the wind is frequently subject to continued
changes in direction and intensity.

But even if it allows the experimenter to
regulate the conditions of any one investigation,
the method by the use of the artificial current of
air can only be applied to models reduced in size
in comparison with actual practice in aviation.
We shall see later the reason for this limitation.

One question immediately presents itself:
How may the results obtained in the study of
models be transformed in order to furnish in-
formation applicable to apparatus of full size?
What is the law of similitude which makes pos-
sible the transformation of an investigation on a

Eiffel's Laboratory: The suction blower at the end of the wind tunnel, driven by SO horse-power, which produces the artificial air

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

small scale to corresponding phenomena on a
large scale. This is the matter which we shall
especially develop at a later point.

A further question presents itself: Do the
methods mentioned above, namely, the displace-
ment of the body under investigation and the
method by the artificial current of air, lead to the
same results? M. Eiffel maintains the affirma-
tive, relying upon the fundamental principle of
relative movement. M. de Guiche maintains
the negative, arguing that the tunnel method
does not realize fully the conditions which per-
mit the application of such a principle.

We shall return to this question at a later
point, in connection with the comparison of the
results obtained by these two experimenters.

A. STL'IHKS OF AIKPI.AXES IX FREK I'l.HHIT
The methods which we have just considered
require that the body under investigation be
connected in a fixed manner with a support.
The latter lias, under good conditions, its di-
mensions reduced as much as possible. It is

also removed as far as possible from the body
under investigation, so that its presence will
produce the minimum of disturbance. It is
none the less true, however, that the airplane,
thus studied, is not in the precise condition of
free evolution in the open air.

For this reason investigations have been un-
dertaken on airplanes during their free flight
in the air. I T n fortunately, the field of such
investigation is limited. It cannot be carried
through at the will of the experimenter; that is
to say, of the pilot, who must first of all guard
against danger of fall. Such experiments give
complex results often difficult of analysis.
Nevertheless it can not be denied that such re-
sults may have a very considerable practical
value.

Experiments of this character were inaugur-
ated in 1010 by MAI. Gaudart and Legrnnd
with a Voisin biplane. These experiments
were, however, neither sufficiently systematic
nor numerous to lead to significant results.

Quite otherwise are the researches made bv

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES OX THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 253

Commander Dorand, at Villaeoublay, on a bi-
plane of his own construction piloted by SI. La-
bouchcre. At the Institute of Saint-Cyr, MM.
Toussaint and the Lieutenant of Aviation
Gouin, have made important experiments on
a Maurice Farman biplane and on a Illeriot
monoplane. Ingenious apparatus capable of
registering the movement of the pilot was em-
ployed to furnish important indications regard-
ing the operation of such actual aviation equip-
ment.

5. THE TOTAL RESISTANCE OF THE AIR AXI) THE
DETERMINATION OF THE PRESSURES AT EACH
POIXT OF THE SURFACE OF THE BODY
UNDER INVESTIGATION'
Let us return to the methods which, in a labo-
ratory, may be employed in determining the re-
sistance of the air upon a body in movement
relative to it.

With regard to the method of measuring this
resistance two types may be characterized:

(1) Determination, by means of a balance,
of the total resistance on the entire body under
investigation.

(2) Determination, at each point of the body,
of the reaction exerted by the air at this point;
a study, in some manner topographical in char-
acter, regarding the pressures resulting from
the relative movement of the body and the
air.

This investigation immediately leads, through
a geometrical composition of the individual
forces thus determined, to a knowledge of the
complete resistance of the air.

The method by means of the balance has given
wonderful results in the laboratory of M. Eiffel
and at the Institute of Saint-Cyr. M. de
Guiche has applied this method solely to the
analysis of the distributed pressures.

Such is the general classification of the experi-
mental methods at present in use in France for
the study of the problems of aerodynamics.
We proceed to give in detail the fundamental

Testing the model of

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

DINAMOMVrCR

v of the L'nilfd States Nmy wind tunnel for testing models.

principles of these investigations in a further
study of the French aerodynamic laboratories.

Diagram* Representing the Result* of
Experiments

1. PHO POSED NOTATIONS

Let us consider a reduced size model of the
body under investigation. Let a be the ratio of
the homologous linear dimensions taken in the
body and in the model.

Let us suppose that the model is tried at a
relative velocity V and that the results of the
experiments are reduced to what they would be
for a velocity V\. If rv, and rv are the actions
of the air on the model at speeds V, and V , we
have the relation

had the value V s . Denote by Rv andJtv 3 these
values of the resistance of the air. We have the
relation

Rv?
Rv

■(?)'■

The relations (1) and (2) give:
fit. 1

Bv

rv,

-m

(2)

(8)

But since rv and Rv are relative to the model
and to the body under investigation at the same
speed V, we have

™ — L

Rv~ >?

(4)

iW

(1)

On the other hand, let us take the body under
investigation. Let V be its velocity relative to
the air, and suppose that the actions of the air
are reduced to what they would be if the velocity

Carrying this value into (8) we have

£-(£)• w

In experiments in aerodynamics the values
usually taken are V\ = Vi = 10 meters per sec-
ond (32.8 feet per second). Measure is then
taken of rv on the model or Rv on a body of

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 255

normal size. Equations (1) and (2) then
give

r >° =rv (™y («)

Bio = Rv

(?)

(7)

The methods for the measurement of rv give
at the same time:

(a) The component of rv along the direction
of relative air movement.

(b) The component of rv normal to the di-
rection of relative air movement.

With M. Eiffel, let us call r* and rv, Fx and
Fv the components of r xo and R xo along and
normal to the direction of relative air movement,
respectively.

We have then the relations:

rx = component of rv along direction

(10\ 2
— j (8)

rv = component of rv along normal
to direction of relative air move-

ment X

<&

(9)

Fx — component of Rv along direc-
tion of relative air movement X

(W <»>

Fv = component of Rv along normal
to direction of relative air move-

ment X

(h)

(ii)

We may note that r* F 2 , n F 2 , F* F 2 and Ft
F 2 are quantities of the order of force.

M. Eiffel calls Rx and if* the components of
airplanes, takes F 2 =l met./sec. = 3.28 f t./sec.
and Ft = 10 met./sec. = 32.8 ft./sec.

Equation (5) then gives

r, \10/

(12)

M. Eiffel calls Rx and Ru the components of
Ri along and normal to the direction of relative
air movement.

We have then

Rx = rx

i?.

= r "(lo) 2 .

(13)

J?* and Rv are quantities of the same order
as rx and rv.

If the model of the airplane is on a scale
1/10, A = io and we have

Rx = rx

Rv = rv

(14)

The numerical values calculated for the model
apply directly to the airplane of normal size.

When the problem involves the wings of air
planes, M. Eiffel places

Kx =

Kv =

component of rv along di-
rection of relative air
movement.

SV 2

component of rv along

normal to direction

of relative air

movement.

SV 2

rx

S X 10 2

rv

S X 10 2 J

(15)

Ki = V Kx 2 + Kv 2 .

. . (16)

In this equation i is the angle between the di-
rection of relative air movement and a reference
line attached to the wing, generally the chord
of the profile of the wing in its plane of sym-
metry.

Kx, Kv, Ki are quantities of the order of
density.

S should be a mean between the surface of
the wing exposed directly to the action of the
air and surface on the back. Builders of air-
planes usually consider S equal to the greatest
projection of the wing on a horizontal plane.

2. STUDY OF THE WINGS OF AN AIRPLANE —
POLAR DIAGRAMS OF M. EIFFEL

M. Eiffel represents the properties of the
wings of an airplane by means of what he calls
simple polar diagrams.

On two rectangular axes, he plots as abscissas
the values of Kx and as ordinates the values of
Kv, the same scale being used for both. The
curve thus traced in the Kx Kv plane is called
the "first simple polar." A point of the curve
corresponds to a determinate value of the angle
i. The radius vector from the origin to this
point represents the quantity Ki. The angle
of this radius vector with the axis of Kv is the
angle between the resistance of the air and the

256

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

normal to the direction of relative air movement.
If this angle is denoted by we have

tang. 9 =

K

(17)

The tangent drawn from the origin to the
polar gives the value of 0, 0™, for which the ratio

Kr

is a minimum.

To each point of the curve corresponds a
value of the angle i and a value of the angle 8.
If 9 = % the resistance of the air is normal to
the chord of the profile; if 8 < % 9 the resistance
of the air is forward of the normal to the chord.
For 9 > % y it falls behind the chord.

This mode of representation (Kx and Kv rep-
resented to the same scale) is not suitable for
the values of the angle i corresponding to the
small values employed in aviation. In fact, for
these values of the angle i the polar diagram
approaches very close to a straight line slightly
inclined to the axis of Kv. The comparison of
one wing with another by simple superposition
of diagrams is a delicate operation. In partic-
ular it is almost impossible to compare the wings

Kx

regarding the minimum value of — *•

Ay

Accordingly, M. Eiffel constructs what he
calls the "second simple polar." He takes for
Kx a scale five times larger than for Kv. In
this mode of representation, a vector joining the
origin with a point on the curve is no longer
equal to Ku and the angle of this vector with the
axis of Kv is no longer the angle *. However,
the same as for the small values of i, less than
10°, Ki is very little different from Kv, and
for the values Ki the ordinates of the new curve
may be taken. It is convenient to add to this

curve a scale representing values of — -. On a

Kv

parallel to the axis of Kx, passing through a

Kx

point of Kv 9 values are plotted of — - corre-

Kv

sponding to one of the intersections with the
new curve of the radius vector starting from
the origin and ending at this point. Let us call

this line the axis of

A'

In order that

Ay Ay

may correspond to an angle t, it is necessary
that the vector just named should cut the sec-

ond polar curve. The minimum value of -=^-

Ay

is then given by the point where the tangent
from the origin to the polar curve meets the axis

/. Aj*

3. STUDY OF THE HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF
AN AIRPLANE — THE LOGARITHMIC

POLAR CURVE

In order to study the horizontal movement of
an airplane, M. Eiffel has pointed out a very in-
genious representation, to which he has given
the name of logarithmic polar.

Let us consider a model of an airplane and let
% be the angle made between the direction of
relative air movement and a straight reference
line intimately connected with the apparatus,
for example, a straight line doubly tangent to
the lower part of the principal planes, near the
fuselage. To this value of the angle t, the ex-
periment on the model will give corresponding
values of the resistance of the air, of which the
projections parallel and perpendicular to the air
movement are r* and rv. To these, equations
(13) serve to give the corresponding values
of Rx and Rv relative to an airplane of full
size.

Furthermore, let

Q = the weight of the actual airplane.

P = the power required to maintain horizon-
tal flight with a relative velocity V.

The equations

P = R*V*
Q = RvF 2 }

(18)

define the correlative values of P, Q, V, Rx and
Rv, and hence of the angle i which corresponds
to the horizontal flight of an airplane of deter-
minate form (especially of an airplane in which
the depth rudder occupies a determinate posi-
tion when the axis of the propeller is parallel to
the path of flight) .

Let us consider such an airplane.

Equations (18) give immediately

log. Rx = log. P — 3 log. V \
log. Rv = log. Q — 2 log. V J *

(19)

or

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 257

log. R* = log. P 7= X V^IS log. V

log. R> = log. Q — ~^= X V~13 log. V

(20)

The experiments on a model permit, for
various values of i, the determination of corre-
sponding values of R x and R y .

On two rectangular axes let us plot to the
same scale, on the axis of abscissas, distances
proportional to the various values of log. R*\
on the axis of ordinates, distances proportional
to the various values of log. Ry. We shall thus
obtain in the plane of the axes a curve to which
M. Eiffel has given the name of logarithmic
polar. Each point on this curve corresponds
to a determinate value of the angle i which is
inscribed on the curve.

Let us consider a vector OMi running from
the origin O to a point Mi on the curve. This
vector has for projections on the axes of co-
ordinates the values log. Rx and log. Ry. But
equations (20) show that this vector is the re-
sultant of a broken line of which the vectors
are

log. P directed along the axis of log. Rx.
log. Q directed along the axis of log. Ry.

Vl8 X log. V directed in the third angle of
the coordinate planes ( — log. R* 9 — log. Ry),
and making with the axis of log. Rx an angle
of which the cosine is equal to

(See fig. 1.)

\/l3

If the two extremities, O and Mi, of the
broken line are preserved, the segments may be
run through in any order whatever. Thus, for
example, we may have any one of the following
orders :

log. P, Vl3 X log. T, log. Q;
log. Q, log. P y \^Ta X log. V;
Vl3 X log. V, log. Q, log. P.

It is well known that starting from the point
O one should, following the broken line, end at
a point Mi of the logarithmic polar. The
directions of the vectors are, furthermore, well
known. If we take two of the vectors of the

broken line, the trace of this line permits im-
mediately the determination of the third.

We may thus solve graphically by means of
the logarithmic polar a series of problems re-
lating to the horizontal flight of an airplane
when the axis of the propeller is parallel to
the path. We might, for example, desire to
know what weight should be given to the ap-
paratus in order to obtain a given velocity with
a given power.

In this problem the vectors log. P and

\Zl8 X log. V are known in magnitude and di-
rection ; it is easy to trace them. From the ex-
tremity of the vector VT8 X log. V there is
drawn a straight line parallel to the axis of log.
Ry, which is continued to its point of intersec-
tion with the logarithmic polar. The vector
log. Q is thus constructed ; it gives the weight Q
which is sought. At the same time, the point of
intersection of this vector with the polar curve
determines the angle i of the flight.

Let us now consider a velocity Vo which is,
for example, the normal actual velocity of the
airplanes (100 kilometers (62.1 miles) per
hour). Then equations (18) may be written

Fo 3

=«<m

~ k "(fo)

Q -
v

(21)

From these we derive

(22)

log.** = log.(^)--iVT3 X log.F
6 *\Vo 4 / yi3 Vo

log.^ = log.(^)~4=^ Xl °^'

On the axis log. V let us take a point Vo such
that

OVo = \/l3 X log. Vo (fig. l.)
The vector VoV then represents

\/l3Xlog.-£-.

Let us then carry this vector over to CVB on
the vector AB, and then project Co to A o on
the axis log. Rx. Finally, lead the vector AoBo
to the ordinate parallel to the axis log. Ry. To
the contour OAB Mi, in which

258

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

OA = log.P, AB = Vl8 X log. V, BMi

= log. Q,

we thus substitute the contour OAoBoM*, which
is its equivalent since it has the same resultant,
and which is such that

OAo =\og.[jTj K j,AoB° = Vl3 X log. ™^—

BoMi =

Mfc)

We have as a result:

Vector OAo = vector OA + vector AAo
Vector AAo = — 3 log. Vo

Vector OAo = log. P — 3 log. Vo = log. ( §r )

As we shall have constantly to consider a Vee-
p'
tor VoV or AoB or \/l3 X log. -j^^ ls natural

° V

to carry the point Vo to the origin.

When the velocity of the airplane is equal to
Vo, the vector AoBo disappears; the points A
and Bo become coincident with the point Mm
(fig. 2) • It is, in fact, easy to see that we have

M*Ao = 3 log. £ , BoMx = 2 log.-£-

V o V •

The coordinates log. R* and log. Rv of the"
point have them for values

log.fi- = log. (Ety
log.K. = log.(Sl)

From these equations we derive

J?x =

(28)

Rv —

Vo"
Vo 2

(24)

We are therefore able to develop a corre-
spondence between a point Mx on the axis of
abscissas (fig. 1) and a value J?*, such that

OMx = log. Rx,
and a value Po of the useful power such that

In the same way we may graduate the axis of
ordinates in terms of weight.

Let us now suppose that, in a problem, we
have given the useful power P and the speed V.
The axis of abscissa?, which is the scale for P 9
gives immediately the point Ao, such that

VoA

log - (h)

(See fig. 2.)

The vector VoV is such that
VoV = Vl3 X log.

Vo'

The contour V A B may be traced. By
carrying BoMi parallel to log. Rj and extending
to the point of intersection with the polar curve,
there is found the vector

Bo Mi = log. [^-]

If this vector is led down from Vo on the
scale of Rv, which is at the same time the scale
of weight, the extremity of the segment gives
immediately the weight Q which is sought.

In the system of units (meter, kilogram, sec-
ond) generally used, P is expressed in kilo-
meter-seconds, V in meter-seconds, Q in kilo-
grams (weight). It is more convenient, for
practical application, to graduate the scales for
P and V in horse-power and in kilometers per
hour. To this end it is sufficient to divide the
indications of the first scale by 75 for horse-
power and to multiply by 3.6 the numbers relat-
ing to velocity.

If the velocity W is less than Vo, the segment
is directed opposite to the segment V Q V. The
contour to consider is Vo AoBo Mi. (See fig.
2.) We have, in fact, in this case

log. R:

= Iog - ih]

+ 8 log.

log.^ = log.[^]+2log.

W

Vo

w

OJf.=log.(£r)

In other words, the axis of abscissae may be
graduated in terms of useful power.

It is easily seen that these equations represent

the projections on the two axes of the contour V*

Ao' Bo' Mi.

We are thus led to the following rule :

If we follow a broken line starting from the

origin and ending on the polar curve, the direc-

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 259

tion in which each vector is traversed is the
direction in which such vector should be placed,
starting from the origin, on the corresponding
scale in order to give its value.

It results immediately that if have the con-
tour Vo ABCD (fig. 2), the vector BC corre-
sponds to a speed greater than the vector BD,
these two speeds being, furthermore, inferior
to Vo.

Let us suppose, now, that the results found
with the model do not correspond to the condi-
tions which had been fixed a priori for the air-
plane. The question may then arise of chang-
ing proportionately the dimensions of the ap-
paratus.

Let N be the ratio of the lineal dimensions of
the second apparatus to those of the first; N 9
for example, might be 1.10 for an increase of 10
per cent in the dimensions.

The fundamental equations of horizontal
flight for this new apparatus will be

To 8

Vo 2

= R*N*

RyN 2

(25)

It is not necessary to construct special polar
curves corresponding to various values of N in
order to determine the value suited to this
number. We find, in fact, from equations
(25)

log. R* = log. [|^] - 3 log.£-- 2 log. N

log. Rv = log. [jy - 2 log. £- - 2 log. N

(26)

To the vectors,

log. [£r] . log. [f 7 ] VT 3 X log. V -

it is convenient to add a fourth vector,
V8X log. N.
This is directed along the line making the

angle 5 — with the axis abscissae (Axis Vo N,

4

fig. 2).

If N is greater than unity, the values of log.
N are laid off along this axis ; if N is less than

unity, they are laid off along the line — with

4

the axis of the abscissas.

If then the values fixed in advance are P, Q.,
V , it is sufficient, in order to have the value of
N which will permit of realizing these values, to
draw the fourth segment in a suitable direction
until it meets the polar curve. The fourth seg-
ment indicates, furthermore, by its intersection
with the polar curve, a suitable angle of flight.

Instead of terminating the polygonal contour
running from the origin to a point of the curve

by the vector V8~X log. N, we may trace this
segment first. In other words, instead of start-
ing from the origin of coordinates as the origin
of contour, we may start from a point situated
on the axis of N. We then see immediately by
the figure what becomes of the properties of an
airplane, for which the dimensions have been
multiplied by the number determined by the
point on the axis of N which was taken for the
point of departure. Every broken line drawn
between this point and the polar curve gives the
system of values P.Q t V, which corresponds to
the modified apparatus.

We can not here indicate the solution of all
the problems for which the consideration of the
logarithmic polar provides. To this end, refer-
ence should be made to the work of M. Eiffel
noted in the bibliography attached to this paper.
However, we may note, in resume, the results
to which this study of the logarithmic polar
leads.

For all the forms of apparatus studied by M.
Eiffel, the logarithmic polar curves always pre-
sent the same general characteristic, that of
figure 3. Beginning with small values of the
angles of incidence, we find the angles of hori-
zontal flight for which the properties are the
following :

(1) Angle ii for which Rx is minimum (fig.

3).

This angle is given by the point of contact of
the tangent to the polar, parallel to the axis of
ordinates.

Horizontal flight lyider this angle corre-
sponds to the maximum speed for a given
power, or to the minimum power for a given
speed.

260 TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

(2) Angle «, for which g- is a minimum fli S ht (™ththe axis of the propeller in the di-

Rv rection of the path) is made under an angle as

(fig. 3). near as possible to the values indicated for i s .

This angle is given by the point of contact of We have constructed the logarithmic polar

tangent to the polar curve, drawn parallel to' curve for a given position of the depth rudder,

the axis of N. We have, by means of this curve, studied the

Horizontal flight under this angle corre- properties of horizontal flight for an apparatus

sponds to the minimum tractive force required under different angles of flight. We have then

for a given weight, or to the maximum weight supposed that for all these angles the air re-

for a given tractive force. sistance passed sensibly through the point of in-

j q \ A i • o i-i JBx 2 . . . tersection of the axis of the propeller and of the

(3) Angle i 3 for which — is a minimum * i •*_ ^

Kv vertical through the center of gravity. For

(fig. 3). each apparatus this is sensibly true for an aver-

This angle is given by the point of contact of age position for the depth rudder,
the tangent to the polar curve, drawn parallel But we may approach still more closely to
to the axis V»V. reality. Experiments made on a model with
Horizontal flight under this angle corre- various positions of the depth rudder give the
sponds to the minimum power for a given resultants of the air resistance which pass ex-
weight, or to the maximum weight for a given actly through the point y of intersection of the
power. axis of the propeller and of the vertical through

(4) Angle n for which Rv is maximum (fig. the center of gravity. We then have sufficient
8 ) . data for the following tables :

This angle is given by the point of contact characteristics of

n . 1 . ...11 1 1 POSITION OF THE RESISTANCE

oi the tangent to the polar curve, drawn paral- ruddbr or ™« air. pass-

<=> *• A IXfl THROUGH T

lei to the axis of abscissa. ^ # aA> #, A> ,- A

Horizontal flight under this angle corre- B RjB, jR»b, £b

sponds to the maximum weight for a given C R--C, R*c, ic

speed, or to the minimum speed for a given Wit h t j lese data we may construct the curves

weight.

It is seen that to each one of the angles of in- *» =t> ( R * ) Ordinary polar curve.

cidence, ,\, fc £, u, we may relate two magni- log J^ (log Rr) Logarithmic

tudes, of which one is maximum or minimum polar curve.

when the other is given. Each one of these A . A B B .

i . .i . n ii , ,. ,, A point of one of these curves gives, not onlv

angles is the most favorable angle regarding the ,. , a ^ n . , , . ,. p > *^^ wm;

+J~ ^—„™„ai «™;4.„^o tIle values of Rx, R v , %, but indicates at the same

two corresponding magnitudes. ,. ,, -,. ... « .. , .

A xl , ,1. /.i A i time th e correspondmg position of the depth

As these polar curves, in their useful part, do ,, r

not have a point of inflection, it follows that

the nearer the angle of horizontal flight lies to . .

one of the angles i„ i 2 , i 3 , u, the better are the The A PP aratu * of Aviation

conditions with regard to the group of magni- M. Eiffel has made, by the fan method, a

tudes which corresponds to these angles. great number of tests on models of certain

Let us take an example. The weight carried forms of apparatus. From these tests we may

by an airplane is judged to be too small. It is deduce a certain number of rules, which we shall

desired to gain weight at the expense of speed, state at a later point ; rules which may serve to

but at the same time preserving the same ex- establish the preliminary design of an air-

penditure of power. It is sufficient to approach plane.

the point for which the weight will be maximum The interesting experiments at the Institute

for a given power. It is well to give to the ap- of Saint-Cyr on an airplane entire (by means

paratus a construction such that horizontal of the car) or on an airplane in free flight are

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 261

not yet sufficiently numerous to give ground
for rules of construction for airplanes. How-
ever, these results merit statement.

(1) M. Eiffel has shown fully the use which
may be made of a study of the logarithmic dia-
gram for the conditions of operation of an air-
plane in horizontal movement. It is thus that
he has studied the regime of maximum speed
for a given power and also the economical
regime.

The maximum speed for horizontal flight de-
pends more especially on the engine installed
on board the avion ( see fig. 3, point d ) .

The economical regime, or regime of mini-
mum power for given weight (see fig. 3,
point i 3 ) , is of great interest. In fact, when an
avion rises with the maximum vertical speed, it
is placed in conditions such that the useful
power developed shall be minimum, the excess
of power being utilized for raising the airplane
to the greatest possible height.

The limiting speeds of an airplane for plan-
ing are:

(a) The maximum speed of normal hori-
zontal flight.

(b) The speed corresponding to the mini-
mum slope.

This minimum is defined by the minimum

vaule of — — . The angle which corresponds to

this minimum is the best angle of planing of
Col. Charles Renard.

The motive quality or sustaining quality of
an airplane introduced by the Constructor
Louis Breguet has for value

9 =

$

s

m

in which

p = efficiency of propeller.

-2L= weight in kilograms carried per square

meter of surface.
p
p-rr*— useful work (kilogram-meter-second)

of the motor propeller combination per kilo-
gram of weight carried. This power corre-

sponds to the efficiency p of the propeller and
to the full power P M of the motor.

V = maximum vertical speed in meters per
second.

( 2 ) Ordinary monoplanes.

The following coefficients result from the ex-
periments of M. Eiffel.

(a) The loads sustained in relation to the
sustaining surface vary between 25 and 35
kilograms per square meter (5.12 to 7.17
pounds per square foot ) .

(b) The maximum speeds of horizontal
flight are comprised between 26.4 and 33.3
meters per second (86.6 and 109.3 feet per sec-
ond) or 95 and 120 kilometers per hour (59
and 74.6 miles per hour).

The speeds for the economical regime vary
between 19.44 and 25 meters per second (63.8
and 82 feet per second) or 70 and 90 kilometers
per hour (43.5 and 55.9 miles per hour).

Let us give the name "portance" to the ratio:

s

Q i

— y— -
S*V 2

The portance for maximum speed of hori-
zontal flight varies between 0.025 and 0.040.
The portance for economical speeds varies be-
tween 0.040 and 0.070. The values utilized
varv, therefore, between 0.025 and 0.070.

(d) The maximum useful power (maxi-
mum horizontal flight) per 100 kilograms
(220 pounds) of weight carried varies between
8 and 11 horse-power.

The minimum useful power (economical
regime) per 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of
weight carried varies between 5 and 6 horse-
power.

The useful power expended in raising 100
kilograms (220 pounds) with the maximum
vertical speed varies between 1.5 and 6 horse-
power.

(e) The maximum vertical speeds vary be-
tween 2.3 and 4.25 meters per second (7.55 and
13.94 feet per second).

(/) Let us assume 6 horse-power per 100
kilograms (220 pounds) for the economical
regime.

Let there be an expenditure of 2 horse-power
per 100 kilograms (220 pounds) for climbing.

262

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

This permits of raising 100 kilograms (220
pounds) a distance of 450 meters (147.6 feet)
in five minutes.

In a preliminary design we may assume a
useful power of 8 horse-power per 100 kilo-
grams of weight carried.

If the propeller has a mean efficiency of 0.70,
the power developed on the shaft is 8/0.7 =11.5
horse-power per 100 kilograms of weight car-
ried.

In a preliminary design for a monoplane, it
is necessary to count on 11 to 12 horse-power
per 100 kilograms (220 pounds) of total
weight carried, say 120 horse-power for an air-
plane of which the total weight in flying condi-
tion is equal to 1000 kilograms (2204 pounds).
The consumption per horse-power will be 0.32
to 0.52 kilograms (0.71 to 1.15 pounds) of
gasoline and oil, and the weight per horse-power
of the engine-propeller equipment, 2 to 3.2
kilograms (4.41 to 7.06 pounds).

(g) The minimum values of ^- are com-

prised between 0.16 and 0.20.

The best planing angles are comprised be-
tween 9° and 11.3° (mean angle =10°).

The ratios of the limiting speeds for planing
are comprised between 1.27 and 1.48.

(h) The values of the motive quality are
comprised between 0.83 and 1.05.

(3) Biplanes.

(a) The loads carried in relation to the
carrying surface vary between 15 and 30 kilo-
grams per square meter (3.07 and 6.15 pounds
per square foot ) .

(b) The maximum speeds for normal hori-
zontal flight are comprised between 19.44 and
27.8 meters per second (63.8 and 91.2 feet per
second), or 70 and 100 kilometers per hour
(43.5 and 62.1 miles per hour). The economi-
cal speeds very between 13.9 and 22.2 meters
per second (45.6 and 72.8 feet per second), or
50 to 80 kilometers per hour (31 and 49.7 miles
per hour).

(c) The values of the portance for maxi-
mum speeds are comprised between 0.035 and
0.045 and the values for economical speeds be-
tween 0.060 and 0.065. m

The values utilized lie between 0.035 and

0.065 — that is to say, within narrower limits
than for monoplanes.

(d) The maximum useful power per 100
kilograms (220 pounds) of weight carried
varies between 5 and 7 horse-power.

The minimum useful power per 100 kilo-
grams (220 pounds) of weight carried varies
between 4 and 5 horse-power.

The useful power expended in lifting 100
kilograms (220 pounds) with the maximum
vertical speed varies from 0.5 to 2.5 horse-
power.

(e) The maximum vertical speeds vary be-
tween 0.5 and 1.6 meters per second (1.64 and
5.25 feet per second).

(/) Let us assume 5 horse-power per 100
kilograms (220 pounds) minimum useful
power and 2 horse-power per 100 kilograms
(220 pounds) for useful power required for
climbing; it is seen that, for 100 kilograms
(220 pounds) of weight carried, there will be
required a useful power of 7 horse-power, or a
power of 10 horse-power absorbed by the shaft,
assuming 0.70 for the mean efficiency of the
propeller. This indicates a power of 100 horse-
power for an airplane of 1000 kilograms (2204
pounds ) .

For a biplane as compared with a monoplane,
there is therefore required less power for the
same weight carried.

(g) The minimum values of

are con-

tained between 0.142 and 0.228. The best
planing angles range between 8° and 11°.
The ratios of the limiting speeds of planing are
comprised between 1.08 and 1.22.

(h) The values of the motive quality are
comprised between 0.75 and 1.17.

(4) Hydravions (seaplanes).

(a) The loads in relation to the carrying
surface vary between 30 and 40 kilograms per
square meter (6.15 and 8.19 pounds per square
foot ) .

(b) The minimum useful power per 100
kilograms of weight carried is 5 to 6 horse-
power for hydravions with floats and 4 to 5
horse-power for hydravions with a boat fuse-
lage.

For the first it is necessary to provide 12 to

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE RESISTANCE OF AIR 268

13 horse-power (on account of the surface ten-
sion which must be overcome as the floats leave
the surface of the water) for the power de-
veloped by the engine on the shaft per 100 kilo-
grams of weight carried, or 104 horse-power
(say an engine of 120 horse-power) for an
equipment weighing 800 kilograms. The
weight of the engines in flying condition repre-
sents about 45 per cent, of the total weight of
the entire equipment.

For hydravions with a boat fuselage it is
necessary to count on 13 or 14 horse-power per
100 kilograms of weight carried for the power
developed by the engine on the shaft, or 560
horse-power (two engines of 300 horse-power)
for an equipment weighing 4000 kilograms
(weight of engines = 45 per cent, of the total
weight of the equipment ) .

Memoranda:

CHAPTER XXXV

GOVERNMENT AND CIVILIAN ORGANIZATIONS DEVELOPING NAVAL AERO-
NAUTICS IN THE UNITED STATES

United States Navy Department

Secretary of the Navy, Honorable Josephus Daniels; As-
sistant Secretary of the Navy, Honorable Franklin Delano
Roosevelt; Chief of Bureau of Navigation, Rear Admiral Leigh
Carlyle Palmer; Chief Bureau of Operations, Rear Admiral
William S. Benson; Chief of Bureau of Steam Engineering, En-
gineer in Chief R. S. Griffin; Chief Bureau of Construction and
Repair, Chief Naval Constructor David \V. Taylor; Comdt. of
Marine Corps, Maj. Gen. G. Barnett; address Navy De-
partment, Washington, D. C. (See chapter on United States
Navy Aeronautics for history of United States Navy Aero-
nautics. See also chapter on "Aerial Defenses Needed for the
Fifteen Naval Districts."

Division of Naval Militia Affairs

Captain Thomas Pickett Magruder, United States Navy,
Chief of Division; Lieutenant Commander Allen Buchanan,
United States Navy, Assistant to Chief of Division (Person-
nel) ; Lieutenant (Junior Grade) Francis Thornton Chew,
United States Navy, Assistant to Chief of Division (Personnel) ;
Ensign Francis Gaines Blasdel, United States Navy (retired),

Assistant to Chief of Division (MaUriel) ; Allen Edmund
Mechem, Chief Clerk. Address: Navy Department, Washings-
ton, D. C.

National Naval Militia Board

(Appointed May 29, 1914, by Secretary of the Navy, in accord-
ance with Section 17 of the Naval Militia Act
of February 16, 1914.)

Atlantic Coast, Northern District: Commodore Robert P.
Forshew, New York Naval Militia; Commander Joseph M.
Mitcheson (retired), Pennsylvania Naval Militia.

Atlantic Coast and Gulf of Mexico, Southern District:
Captain Caleb D. Brad ham, North Carolina Naval Militia.

Great Lakes District: Captain Edward A. Evers, Illinois
Naval Militia.

Pacific Coast District: Lieutenant John A. McGee, Cali-
fornia Naval Militia.

See chapter on "Naval Militia Aeronautics*' for history of
Naval Militia Aeronautics.

The

Production Board and

of National Defense

Address: Munsey Building, Washington, D. C.

The Aircraft Production Board was created on May 21, 1917,
to act in the closest cooperation with the War and Navy De-
partments in carrying out the Government's aircraft policy. The
members of the Board are: Howard E. Coffin, chairman; Briga-
dier General George O. Squier, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A. ; Rear
Admiral David W. Taylor, Chief of the Bureau of Construction,
U. S. N.; Major Sidney D. Waldon, S. O. R. C; E. A. Deeds and
R. L. Montgomery. In the announcement of the creation of the
Aircraft Production Board there was stated that the Aircraft
Production Board was to carry out America's war policy in the
air, which involves a program of turning out in American fac-
tories of thousands of aeroplanes, including both training and
battle types, and the establishment of schools and training fields
with sufficient capacity not only to man these machines but to
supply a constant stream of aviators and mechanics to the Amer-
ican forces in Europe.

Historic. — A movement to bring about closer cooperation be-
tween the various branches of the Government, and to coordinate
our national resources was first suggested some three years ago.
In the spring of 1915, several patriotic organizations, including
the Aero Club of America, the National Security League, the
Navy League, the Army League, the National Aerial Coast
Patrol Commission, cooperating in the Conference Committee on
National Preparedness, advocated the establishment of the Coun-
cil of National Defense to comprise cabinet officers with the
chairmen of the most important committees of Congress and
various distinguished civilian experts. The Government was
quick in realizing the value of such a council to coordinate the
national resources for national defense, and the council was
authorized by the Sixty-fourth Congress.

Authorization. — The purpose of the Council is set forth in the
congressional authorization which was part of the Army Appro-
priation Bill (H.R. 17498), 1916, as follows:

"That a Council of National Defense is hereby established,
for the coordination of industries and resources for the national
security and welfare, to consist of the Secretary of War, the

264

Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secre-
tary of Commerce, and the Secretary of Labor.

"That the Council of National Defense shall nominate to the
President, and the President shall appoint, an advisory commis-
sion, consisting of not more than seven persons, each of whom
shall have special knowledge of some industry, public utility, or
the development of some natural resource, or be otherwise spe-
cially qualified, in the opinion of the Council, for the perform-
ance of the duties hereinafter provided. The members of the ad-
visory committee shall serve without compensation, but shall be
allowed actual expenses of travel and subsistence when attend-
ing meetings of the commission or engaged in investigations per-
taining to its activities. The advisory commission shall hold such
meetings as shall be called by the council or be provided by the
rules and regulations adopted by the council for the conduct
of its work.

"That it shall be the duty of the Council of National Defense to
supervise an direct investigations and make recommendations
to the President and the heads of the executive departments
as to the location of railroads with reference to the frontier
of the United States so as to render possible expeditions,
concentration of troops and supplies to points of defense;
the coordination of military, industrial, and commercial pur-
poses in the location of extensive highways; the mobilisation of
military and naval resources for defense; the increase of domestic
production of articles and materials essential to the support of
armies and of the people during the interruption of foreign com-
merce; the development of seagoing transportation; data as to
amounts, location, method and means of production, and avail-
ability of military supplies; the giving of information to pro-
ducers and manufacturers as to the class of supplies needed
by the military and other services of the Government, the
requirements relating thereto, and the creation of relations
which will render possible in time of need the immediate con-
centration and utilization of the resources of the nation.

"That the Council of National Defense shall adopt rules and

DEVELOPING NAVAL AERONAUTICS IN THE UNITED STATES 265

regulations for the conduct of Its work, which rules and regu-
lations shall be subject to the approval of the President and
shall provide for the work of the advisory commission to the
end that the special knowledge of such commission may be
developed by suitable investigation, research, and inquiry and
made available in conference and report for the use of the
council; and the council may organize subordinate bodies for
its assistance in special investigations, either by the employ-
ment of experts or by the creation of committees of specially
qualified persons to serve without compensation, but to direct
the investigations of experts so employed."

The first step to organize the Council of National Defense
was taken by President Wilson on October 11th, 1916, by the
appointment of seven civilian members of the advisory board
of the Council as follows:

Daniel Willard, Chairman; Bernard M. Baruch, Howard E.
Coffin, Hollis Godfrey, Samuel Gompers, Dr. Franklin H. Mar-
tin, Julius Rosenwald.

Director of the Council and of the Advisory Commission —
Walter S. Gifford.

Secretary of the Council and of the Advisory Commission —
Grosvenor B. Clarkson.

Chief Clerk and Disbursing Officer, E. K. Ellsworth.

In announcing the appointments, President Wilson issued the
following statement:

The Council of National Defense has been created because
the Congress has realized that the country is best prepared for
war when thoroughly prepared for peace. From an economic
point of view there is now very little difference between the

machinery required for commercial efficiency and that required
for military purposes. In both cases the whole industrial mech-
anism must be organized in the most effective way. Upon this
conception of the national welfare the Council is organized, in
the words of the act, for "the creation of relations which will
render possible in time of need the immediate concentration and
utilization of the resources of the nation."

The organization of the Council likewise opens up a new and
direct channel of communication and cooperation between busi-
ness and scientific men and all departments of the Govern-
ment, and it is hoped that it will, in addition, become a rallying
point for civic bodies working for the national defense. The
Council's chief functions are:

1. The coordination of all forms of transportation and the
development of means of transportations to meet the military,
industrial and commercial needs of the nation.

2. The extension of the industrial mobilization work of the
Committee on Industrial Preparedness of the Naval Consulting
Board. Complete information as to our present manufacturing
and producing facilities adaptable to many-sided uses of modern
warfare will be procured, analyzed and made use of.

One of the objects of the Council will be to inform American
manufacturers as to the part they can and must play in national
emergency. It is empowered to establish at once and maintain
through subordinate bodies of specially qualified persons an
auxiliary organization composed of men of the best creative and
administrative capacity, capable of mobilizating to the utmost
the resources of the country.

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

Office: Munsey Building, Washington, D. C.

The National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics was estab-
lished by Act of Congress, March 3, 1915, to meet the growing
demand for a greater activity in aeronautics, by the Military De-
partments of the Government. The purpose of the committee is
set forth in the congressional authorization as follows:

Authorization. — An Advisory Committee for Aeronautics is
hereby established, and the President is authorized to appoint
not to exceed twelve members, to consist of two members from
the War Department, from the office in charge of military aero-
nautics; two members from the Navy Department, from the
office in charge of naval aeronautics; a representative each of
the Smithsonian Institution, of the United States Weather
Bureau, and of the United States Bureau of Standards; to-
gether with not more than five additional persons who shall be
acquainted with the needs of aeronautical science, either civil or
military, or skilled in aeronautical engineering or its allied
sciences: Provided, That the members of the Advisory Com-
% mittee for Aeronautics, as such, shall serve without compensa-
tion: Provided further, That it shall be the duty of the Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics to supervise and direct the scientific
study of the problems of flight, with a view to their practical
solution, and to determine the problems which should be experi-
mentally attacked, and to discuss their solution and their appli-
cation to practical questions. In the event of a laboratory or
laboratories, either in whole or in part, being placed under the
direction of the committee, the committee may direct and con-
duct research and experiment in aeronautics in such laboratory
or laboratories: And provided further, That rules and regula-
tions for the conduct of the work of the committee shall be
formulated by the committee and approved by the President.

That the sum of $5000 a year, or so much thereof as may be
necessary, for five years is hereby appropriated, out of any
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be im-
mediately available, for experimental work and investigations
undertaken by the committee, clerical expenses and supplies, and
necessary expenses of members of the committee in going to,
returning from, and while attending meetings of the committee:
Provided, That an annual report to the Congress shall be sub-
mitted through the President, including an itemized statement
of expenditures.

The creation of the National Advisory Committee for Aero-

nautics was the first important movement inaugurated for effec-
tive cooperation between the government departments interested
in aeronautics, and with the industrial interests of the nation,
especially those engaged directly in the manufacture of air-
craft. The committee represents all interested departments of
the United States Government and, in addition, has the author-
ity to officially coordinate their efforts and to cooperate with the
manufacturers and designers of aircraft.

The committee was organized on April 23, 1915, with tem-
porary headquarters in the State, War, and Navy Building.
The rules and regulations, which were adopted by the committee
at this meeting, and later approved by the President, provide for
the annual election of a chairman and a secretary, and also
authorize an executive committee consisting of seven members
of the advisory committee. To the executive committee full
authority has been delegated to control the administration of the
affairs of the committee and to supervise all arrangements for
research and experiment undertaken or promoted by the com-
mittee. The committee, however, will not expend public money
for the development of inventions or experimenting with inven-
tions for the benefit of individuals or manufacturers.

The full committee meets twice a year — in April and October.
The executive committee holds regular meetings monthly, and
special meetings when necessary.

The organization of the committee, as of May 15, 1917, is as
follows: William F. Durand, chairman; S. W. Stratton, secre-
tary; Joseph S. Ames, Capt. V. E. Clark, John F. Hayford,
Charles F. Marvin, Hon. Byron R. Xewton, Michael I. Pupin,
Brig.-Gen. George O. Squier, Rear- Admiral D. W. Taylor, Lieut.
J. H. Towers, Charles D. Walcott.

To facilitate the work of the committee, the following sulv
committees have been established:

Aerial Mail Service — Brig.-Gen. George O. Squier, U. S. A.,
chairman.

Aero Torpedoes — Lieut.-Commander John H. Towers, U. S.
N., chairman.

Aircraft Communications — Dr. Michael L. Pupin, chairman.

Aeroplane Mapping Committee — Brig.-Gen. George O. Squier,
U. S. A., chairman.

Bibliography of Aeronautics — Prof. Charles F. Marvin, chair-
man.

DEVELOPING NAVAL AERONAUTICS IN THE UNITED STATES 267

Buildings, Laboratories, and Equipment — Dr. Joseph S. Ames,
chairman.

Design, Construction, and Navigation of Aircraft — Brig.-Gen.
George O. Squier, U. S. A., chairman.

Governmental Relations — Dr. Charles D. Walcott, chairman.

Nomenclature for Aeronautics — Dr. Joseph S. Ames, chair-
man.

Patents — Dr. Charles D. Walcott, chairman.

Physics of the Air — Prof. Charles F. Marvin, chairman.

Power Plants — Dr. S. W. Stratton, chairman.

Relation of the Atmosphere to Aeronautics — Prof. Charles P.
Marvin, chairman.

Standardization and Investigation of Materials — Dr. S. W.
Stratton, chairman.

Foreign Representatives — Dr. Charles D. Walcott, chairman.

Naval Consulting Board of the United States

Office: Munsey Building, Washington, D. C.

The Naval Consulting Board was authorized by Secretary of
the Navy Daniels in August, 1915, who also appointed Mr.
Thomas A. Edison, chairman of the Board for life. The purpose
of creating the Board was, in the words of Secretary Daniels,
"to make available the latent inventive genius of our country to
improve our navy."

The first meeting of the Board was held in the offices of Secre-
tary Daniels on October 6, 1916. The members and navy of-

ficials who attended the meeting are shown in the accompanying
illustration. Aeronautic matters are attended to by the Com-
mittee on Aeronautics, of which Mr. Elmer A. Sperry is chair-
man, succeeding Mr. Henry A. Wise Wood, resigned, whose
place on the Naval Consulting Board was filled by the appoint-
ment of Mr. Bion J. Arnold.

The Naval Consulting Board has done much work of national
importance, including the mobilization of industries.

The United States Coast Guard

The Coast Guard is part of the Department of the Treasury,
of which Hon. William Gibbs McAdoo is Secretary and Hon.
Byron R. Newton is Assistant Secretary. The offices of the
Coast Guard are at the Munsey Building, Washington, D. C.
The administrative officers are: Captain Commandant, Ells-
worth P. Bertholf ; Chief of Division of Operations, Oliver M.
Maxam; Chief of Division of Material, G. H. Slaybaugh; Super-
intendent of Construction and Repair, Senior Captain Howard
Emery; Engineer in Chief, Charles A. McAllister; Inspector,
Senior Capt. D. P. Foley.

At a meeting of the Board of Governors of the Aero Club of
America in 1911, Mr. Alan R. Hawley, the President of the
Club, pointed out the possibility of increasing the efficiency of
the Life Saving Service and Revenue Cutter Service by em-
ploying aeroplanes, and emphasized the desirability of concen-
trating efforts to carry out this idea, which would bring about
the use of aeroplanes for utilitarian purposes. This proposal
was entered in the minutes of the meeting. In December, 1913,
the special number of "Flying," to celebrate the tenth anniver-
sary of the first flight, printed an extensive article by Mr. Henry
Woodhouse, pointing out the possible developments which would
bring about the use of aeroplanes for utilitarian purposes, and
pointed out that one of the prospective fields for the employ-
ment of aeroplanes for utilitarian purposes would be the Life
Saving Service and the Revenue Cutter Service.

As soon as Mr. Byron R. Newton, the present Assistant Sec-
retary of the Treasury, was appointed to office, he very en-
thusiastically began to consider the possibility of increasing the
efficiency of the Revenue Cutter Service and the Life Saving
Service, which are under the jurisdiction of the Treasury De-
partment, and finding that the aeroplane would, more than any-
thing else, increase the efficiency of the Revenue Cutter Service
and the Life Saving Service, which were combined under the
name of the Coast Guard, he began to consider the plan to give
an aviation section to the Coast Guard.

At about this time, Captain Thomas of the United States
Navy discussed the possibilities of employing aeroplanes in the
Coast Guard with Captain Benjamin H. Chiswell, of the Cutter
Onondaga, who became very enthusiastic and began to figure
out plans to bring about this development. Captain E. P.
Bertholf, who commands the Coast Guard became interested in
the plan, and arrangements were made to send two coast guard
officers, Second Lieutenants Elmer F. Stone, and Charles E.
Sugden, to the Pensacola Naval Aeronautical Station for instruc-
tion in aviation: The cooperation of the Curtiss institution was
secured, and the Coast Guard was offered every facility for ex-
perimentation at the Curtiss Aviation Camp at Newport News,
Virginia. Lieutenant Stone was first designated as observer,
and was replaced by First-Lieut. Norman B. Hall. The Sperry
Gyroscope Company offered the use of the gyroscope compass

and a radio apparatus for experimentation, and Lieutenant Hall
has since been developing the scientific and mechanical part of
the proposition.

Then a tentative bill was drawn by Captain C. A. McAllister,
Chief Engineer of the Coast Guard Service, which was intro-
duced in Congress by Congressman Andrew J. Montague, of
Virginia.

Upon the earnest recommendation of the Secretary of the
Treasury, and of the other administrative officials of the Coast
Guard, Congress very wisely authorized, in the Naval Appro-
priation Act, approved August 29, 1916, aviation facilities for
this humanitarian branch of the public service. The Act, in
general, provides that for the purpose of saving life and prop-
erty along the coasts of the United States and at sea contiguous
thereto, and to assist in the national defense, there shall be
established not exceeding ten aviation stations at such points on
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the Gulf of Mexico and the
Great Lakes, as the Secretary of the Treasury may deem advis-
able. One of these stations may be fitted up as a school of
instruction, and provision is made for the necessary increased
personnel of the Coast Guard by authorizing not more than fif-
teen additional commissioned officers and forty warrant officers
and enlisted men for aviation duty. The Secretaries of War
and Navy are also authorized at the request of the Secretary of
the Treasury, to receive officers and enlisted men of the Coast
Guard for instruction in aviation at anv aviation school main-
tained by the Army and Navy. While engaged in aviation duty
all officers and men will receive the additional pay and allowances
now or hereafter authorized for officers and men of the Navy
detailed for such dutv.

Unfortunately in the closing hours of Congress after the
Naval Appropriation Bill had become a law, the necessary ap-
propriations for this extension of the facilities of the Coast
Guard were not made available. However, this fact will not
necessarily impede progress in the institution of this important
auxiliary, as already a commissioned officer, Capt. B. M. Chis-
well, U. S. C. G., has been detailed in charge of aviation matters,
and several junior officers have been assigned to naval and com-
mercial schools for the necessary instruction. In the immediate
future a board of officers is to be appointed by the Coast Guard
to select a site for an experimental station, to determine the
type, size, and equipment of the necessary hangars, and in a
general way to outline a general plan for the institution of the
authorized aviation facilities. By the time Congress reconvenes
in December this board will have reported and made its recom-
mendations. Deficiency appropriations will then be submitted
to Congress and as soon as made available active steps will be
taken towards as rapid development of this function of the
Coast Guard as is possible under the circumstances.

268

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

The Aero Club of America and Constituent Aero Clubs

The Aero Club of America has been the most important factor
in the developing of naval aeronautics in America. In the early
days of the hydroaeroplane, when this type of aircraft was con-
sidered as a freak, it was the Aero Club of America and the con-
stituent aero clubs that stood sponsor for it, a number of their
members purchasing hydroaeroplanes and flying boats for pleas-
ure. It was also the Aero Club of America that spent thousands
of dollars to conduct a campaign of education to make known the
need of aerial defenses for the fifteen naval districts. The chap-
ters on the "Evolution of the Seaplane," "Naval Militia Aero-
nautics," and the "Aerial Coast Patrol" give details of some of
the most substantial work of the Aero Club of America and its
constituent aero clubs to develop naval aeronautics.

The Aero Club of America was founded in 1905 and is the
sole representative of the International Aeronautic Federation
and the Pan-American Aeronautic Federation in the United
States, thereby being affiliated with the aero clubs of thirty-eight
countries.

The officers and governors of the Aero Club of America are:

Alan R. Hawley, President; Henry A. Wise Wood, Vice-Presi-
dent; Cortlandt F. Bishop, Vice-President; Charles Jerome Ed-
wards, Vice-President; Godfrey L. Cabot, Vice-President;
Charles Elliot Warren, Treasurer; William Hawley, Secretary.
Governors: Cortlandt F. Bishop, James A. Blair, Jr., Robert
J. Collier, Howard E. Coffin, W. Redmond Cross, Charles Jerome
Edwards, Brig.-Gen. Robert K. Evans, U. S. A.; Max C. Fleisch-
mann, John Hays Hammond, Jr., Alan R. Hawley, Major F. L.
V. Hoppin, Henry B. Joy, Albert Bond Lambert, W. W. Miller,
Capt. James E. Miller, S. O. R. C; George M. Myers, Harold F.
McCormick, Rear Admiral Robert E. Peary, Raymond B. Price,
Allan A. Ryan, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Evert Jansen Wendell,
Henry A. Wise Wood, Henry W r oodhouse.

The chairmen of the Aero Club of America's committees are:

Admission Major F. L. V. Hoppin

Aerodynamics Dr. A. F. Zahm

Aeronautical Map Rear Adm. Robt. E. Peary

Affiliated Clubs Russel A. Alger

Auditing Harrington Emerson

Collier Trophy W r . Redmond Cross

Contest Alan R. Hawley

Dirigible $ Kite Balloon Henry Woodhouse

Entertainment Chas. Jerome Edwards

Finance Allan A. Ryan

Foreign Relations Cortlandt F. Bishop

Grievance Evert Jansen Wendell

House Alan R. Hawley

Law W. W. Miller

Library Chas. Jerome Edwards

Marine Flying Henry A. Wise Wood

Governmental A fairs and Relations W. Redmond Cross

Military $ Naval Col. Cornelius Vanderbilt

Pan-American Albertos Santos-Dumont

Public Safety Gen. Theo. A. Bingham, U. S. A.

Publicity Henry Woodhouse

Spherical Balloon George M. Myers

Technical Raymond B. Price

Trans- Atlantic Flight Cortlandt F. Bishop

!

The membership of the seven committees having most to do
with military aeronautics are:

Committee on Governmental Affairs and Relations: W. Red-
mond Cross, Chairman; Maj. Raynal C. Boiling, S. O. R. C;
Howard E. Coffin, Alan R. Hawley, Capt. James E. Miller, S. O.

R. C; Raymond B. Price, Henry A. Wise Wood, Henry Wood-
house.

Contest Committee: Alan R. Hawley, Chairman; W. Red-
mond Cross, Lieut. Godfrey L. Cabot, N. M. M.; Capt. Philip A.
Carroll, S. O. R. C; Capt. D. de F. Chandler, U. S. A.; A. B.
Lambert, Capt J. C. McCoy, S. O. R. C; Lieut.-Comdr. H. C.
Mustin, U. S. N.; Henry A. Wise Wood, Henry Woodhouse,

Military and Navai Aviation Committee: Cornelius Vander-
bilt, Chairman; Lieut. Vincent Astor, N. M. N. Y.; Maj. Raynal
C. Boiling, S. O. R. C; Captain Mark L. Bristol, U. S. N.; Maj.
Charles de F. Chandler, U. S. A.; Comdr. R. K. Crank, U. S. N.;
Brig.-Gen. Robert K. Evans, U. S. A.; Rear Admiral Bradley

A. Fiske, U. S. N.; Lieut. Lee H. Harris, N. M. N. Y.; Lt. V. D.
Herbster, U. S. X.; Major F. L. V. Hoppin, N. G. N. Y.; Capt
James E. Miller, S. O. R. C; Lieut.-Com. H. C. Mustin, U. S. X.;
Rear Adm. Robert E. Peary, U. S. N.; Brig.-Gen. George O.
Squier, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A.; Lt. Comr. John H. Towers,
U. S. N.; Major Charles Elliot Warren, Officers' Reserve Corps.

Marine Flying Committee: Henry A. Wise Wood, Chairman;
Frederick M. Bourne, Lieut. Godfrey L. Cabot, N. M. M. ; James
Deering, W. Earl Dodge, Lieut. F. Trubee Davison, N. R. F. C;
James Elverson, Jr.; John Hays Hammond, Jr.; Harry S. Hark-
ness, Henry B. Joy, A. L. Judson, Harold F. McCormick, Ogden
Mills Reid, William E. Scripps, Rodman Wanamaker, Harry
Payne Whitney, Eugene S. Willard.

Dirigible and Kite-Balloon Committee: Henry Woodhouse,
Chairman ; Capt. Thomas S. Baldwin, S. O. R. C. ; Capt. Mark L.
Bristol, U. S. N.; Major Charles de F. Chandler, U. S. A.; Brig.-
Gen. Robert K. Evans, U. S. A.; Rear Admiral Bradley A.
Fiske, U. S. N. ; Lieut. V. D. Herbster. U. S. N. ; Otto H. Kahn,
Major Frank P. Lahm, U. S. A.; Lieut L. H. Maxfield, U. S. X.;
Herman A. Metz, Samuel C. Morehouse, E. R. Preston, Raymond

B. Price, A. Leo Stevens, Professor David Todd, Ralph H.
Upson.

Aeronautical Map and Landing Places Committee: Rear Ad-
miral Robert E. Peary, Chairman; Bion J. Arnold, A. H. Acker-
mans, August Belmont, James Gordon Bennett, Cortlandt F.
Bishop, Captain Mark L. Bristol, U. S. N.; Capt. W. Starling
Burgess, S. O. R. C; Lieut. Godfrey L. Cabot, N. M. M. f Presi-
dent Aero Club of New England; President Manuel Estrada
Cabrera of Guatemala; Capt. Joseph E. Carberry, U. S. A.;
Capt. W. I. Chambers, U. S. N.; J. Parke Channing, Roy D.
Chapin, Alexander Smith Cochran, Robert J. Collier, Glenn H.
Curtiss, Comdr. Cleveland Davis, U. S. N.; F. E. deMurias,
Charles deSan Marzano, Charles Dickinson. President of Aero
Club of Illinois; F. G. Diffin, W. Earl Dodge, Harrington Emer-
son, John Hays Hammond, Jr.; W. Averill Harriman, Wra.
Hawley, Henry B. Joy, Otto H. Kahn, Frank S. Lahm, A.
B. Lambert, Henry Lockhart, Jr.; Ensign Robert A. Lovett,
N. R. F. C; Harold F. McCormick, Capt. J. C. McCoy,
S. O. R. C; Herman A. Metz, Eugene Meyer, Jr.; Capt. James

E. Miller, S. O. R. C; Lieut.-Comdr. Henry C. Mustin, TJ. S. N\;
George M. Myers, President Aero Club of Kansas City; George
W. Perkins, Augutus Post, Col. Samuel Reber, U. S. A.; Thomas

F. Ryan, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Mortimer L. SchirT, Frank
A. Seiberling, William G. Sharp, U. S. Ambassador to France;
Lawrence B. Sperry, Brig.-Gen. George O. Squier, TJ. S. A.; Chief
Signal Officer Joseph A. Steinmetz, President Aero Club of
Pennsylvania; James S. Stephens, Lieut.-Com. J. H. Towers,
U. S. N.; K. M. Turner, George W. Turney, Inglis M. Uppercu,
Col. Cornelius Vanderbilt, W. K. Vanderbilt, L. A. Vilas, George
Von Utassy, Rodman Wanamaker, Evert Jansen Wendell, Hugh
L. Willoughby, Henry A. Wise Wood, Henry Woodhouse, Maj.
Orville Wright, S. O.R. C; William Wallace Young, A. Francis
Zahm.

DEVELOPING NAVAL AERONAUTICS IN THE UNITED STATES 269

The Aero Club of America maintains a club House and
headquarters at 297 Madison Avenue, New York City, and Wash-
ington offices in the Union Trust Building, Washington, D. C.
The aero clubs affiliated with the Aero Club of America are:
Aero Club of Baltimore, Aero Club of Buffalo, Colorado Aero
Club, Aero Club of Connecticut, Aero Club de Cuba, Aero Club
of Dayton, Aero Club of Illinois, Aero Club of Michigan, Aero
Club of New England, Aero Club of New York, Aero Club of

Ohio, Aero Club of Pennsylvania, 'Aero Club of Pittsfleld, Queen
City Aero Club, Aero Club of St. Louis, Aero Club of Wash-
ington, Aircraft Club of Peoria, Harvard Aeronautical Society,
Kansas City Aero Club, Milwaukee Aero Club, Pacific Aero
Club, Rochester Aero Club, Aero Club of Northwest, Western
Aero Association, Wichita Aero Club, New York Flying Yacht
Club, Aeronautical Society of California, Aero Club of Iowa.

The National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission

Address: Union Trust Building, Washington. D. C.

The National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission was founded in
1915. (See Chapter on "Aerial Coast Patrol" for report of the
Commission's work.)

Central Committee: Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-presi-
dent of the United States, Honorary Chairman; Rear Admiral
Robert E. Peary, U. S. N. retired, Chairman; Senator Morris
Sheppard, of Texas; Senator James E. Watson, of Indiana;
Representative Julius Kahn, of California; Representative Mur-
ray Hulbert, of New York; Hon. Byron R. Newton, Assistant
Secretary of the Treasury ; Hon. William M. Ingranam, Assistant
Secretary of War; Mr. Alan R. Hawley, President, Aero Club of
America; Mr. Henry Woodhouse, member Board of Governors,
Aero Club of America, Delegate on Industry and Education Pan-

American Aeronautical Federation; Lieut. F. Trubee Davison,
Flying Reserve, U. S. Navy, Organizer, Aerial Coast Patrol Unit
No. 1; Dr. E. Lester Jones, Superintendent U. S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey; Dr. H. C. Frankenfteld, Chief Forecaster U. S.
Weather Bureau; Hon. Emerson McMillin, Mr. John Hays
Hammond, Jr.

Secretary: Mr. Earl Hamilton Smith, Washington Represen-
tative Aero Club of America.

State members: The Presidents of the Aero Clubs affiliated
with the Aero Club of America.

The Adjutants General and the Commanding officers of the
Naval Militia of the States.

Board Cooperating with the Commandant of the Third Naval District in the Organiza-
tional of the Naval Reserve Forces

Address: 297 Madison Avenue, New York.

The Board, which was appointed on March 2d at the request of
the naval authorities, and is cooperating with the other Commit-
tees working in organizing the naval reserves of the Third Naval
District, consists of:

Chairman, nominated by Rear Admiral Usher, Mr. Alan R.
Hawley, President of the Aero Club of America, etc.

Operations and Coordination. — Rear Admiral Robert E.
Peary, Chairman of the National Aerial Coast Patrol Commis-
sion, member of the Board of Governors, Aero Club of America ;
Eugene S. Willard, member Board of Governors and Chairman
of New York State Enrollment Committee, Naval Training As-
sociation of the U. S.; member Executive Committee, Power
Craft Association, etc.

Enrollments. — Lieutenant F. Trubee Davison, organizer Vol-
unteer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1; Lewis S. Thompson,
Augustus Post, Evert Jansen Wendell, Clinton David Backus.

Instruction. — Robert A. Lovett, member of Volunteer Aerial
Coast Patrol Unit No. 1; co-organizer of Aerial Coast Patrol
Unit No. 2; F. C. G. Eden, who is in charge of the Dodge Avia-
tion Training Camp for college men; Congressman F. H. La
Guardia.

Aviation Training Camps. — Lewis S. Thompson, in charge of
the aviation training camp of Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol
Unit No. 1 ; W. Earl Dodge, founder of the Dodge Aviation
Training Camp for College men; Harold Irving Pratt, Harry
Frank Guggenheim, Congressman Murray Hulbert, J. F. Knapp,
Rodman Wanamaker.

Flying Equipment. — Henry Woodhouse, member Board of
Governors, Aero Club of America, Chairman Committee on
Aeronautics, National Institute of Efficiency, etc.; Lieut. F.
Trubee Davison, W. Earl Dodge, Harold Irving Pratt, Howard
S. Borden, August Belmont, Rodman Wanamaker.

Torpedoplanes, Aerial Guns and Explosives. — Rear Admiral
Bradley, A. Fiske, retired, President Naval Institute of the
United States; member of Committee on Naval Aeronautics,
Aero Club of America, etc.; Frank M. Leavitt.

Naval Anti-Aircraft Defenses. — Eugene S. Willard, Schuyler
Skaats Wheeler, Captain Robert A. Bartlett, Henry Woodhouse,
Charles Elliott Warren.

Communications (Radio, Signaling, etc.). — John Hays Ham-
mond, Jr., member Board of Governors, Aero Club of America;
Conference Committee on National Preparedness, etc.; Lawrence
B. Sperry, Schuyler Skaats Wheeler, William Dubellier.

Observation Balloons. — Rear Admiral William N. Little, re-
tired, member of numerous organizations.

Secretary of the Committee. — Henry Woodhouse.

(The first name in each sub-committee is the Chairman of that
committee. )

This committee has rendered some valuable reports and has
done much to establish seaplane stations and encouraging civil-
ians to join the Naval Reserves and arranging for the training
of aviators for coast patrol work.

The Aircraft Manufacturers' Association

The Aircraft Manufacturers' Association was organized at the
close of 1916. At the elections of officers held May 9, 1917, the
following officers were elected: Honorary President, Glenn H.
Curtiss; President, Frank H. Russell, Burgess Company, Mar-
blehead, Mass.; Vice-President, Albert H. Flint, L-W-F Engi-
neering Co., College Point, L. I.; Treasurer, Inglis M. Uppercu,
Aeromarine Plane & Motor Co., New York Citv; Secretarv, Ben-
jamin L. Williams, New York City; Assistant Treasurer, A. H.
Flint. Address 1501 Fifth Avenue, New York Citv.

Advisory Committee: Albert H. Flint, H. B. Morse, Benja-
min Foss.

Committee on Patents: Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp.
Chairman, Thomas-Morse Aircraft Co., Sturtevant Aeroplane
Co.

Committee on Materials: L-W-F Engineering Co. (Chair-
man), Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp., Burgess Co., Standard
Aero Corp., Sturtevant Aeroplane Co., B. F. Sturtevant Co.,
Aeromarine Plane & Motor Co., Thomas-Morse Aircraft Co.

Membership Committee: Benjamin Foss, H. B. Mingle, Mr.
A. H. Flint.

Standardization Committee: Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor
Corp. (Chairman), L-W-F Engineering Co., Burgess Co., Stand-

270

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

ard Aero Corp., Sturtevant Aetoplane Co., B. F. Sturtevant Co.,
Aeromarine Plane & Motor Co., Thomas-Morse Aircraft Co.

Publicity, Advertising and Censorship Committee: Fay L»

Faurote.

The Society of Automotive Engineers

The Society of Automotive Engineers was the result of the
amalgamation, in 1910-17, of the Society of Automobile Engi-
neers and the American Society of Aeronautic Engineers. The
officers are:

George W. Dunham, president; Jesse Vincent, vice-president;
Charles M. Manley, vice-president; Herbert Chase, treasurer;
Benjamin B. Bach man, Harry L. Horning, Charles \V. Mc-

Council

Kinley, Fred E. Moskovics, David Beecroft, Jonn G. Utz, Wm.
H. Van Dervort, Ilussel Huff.

Finance Committee: H. M. Swetland, Christian Girl, F. C.
Glover, Elmer A. Sperry, H. R. Sutphen.

Address: 29 West 39th Street, New York City.

The National

Aid Society

National Headquarters, 259 Fifth Avenue, New York.

The National Special Aid Society, which was founded in Janu-
ary, 1915, and incorporated in July, 1916, has cooperated ex-
tensively with the Aero Club of America and the National Aerial
Coast Patrol Commission in advancing the cause of aerial pre-
paredness and has established "The Aviation Treasure and
Trinket Fund." The purpose of the Fund is "to meet the Red
Cross needs of the air services; the care of those dependent in
case of disaster and the long list of the flyers wants in so far as
we are permitted and are able."

The officers of the National Special Aid Society are: Mrs.
William Alexander, president; Mrs. Charles Frederick Hoffman,
vice-president; Mr. Leroy W. Baldwin, treasurer; Mr. Warren
A. Mayou, assistant treasurer; Mrs. Henry A. Wise Wood, secre-
tary; Mr. George F. Sweeney, executive secretary.

The members of the Board of Directors are: Mrs. William
Alexander, Mrs. John E. Alexander, Mrs. William Allen Bart-
lett, Mrs. Charles H. Ditson, Mrs. Eliot Butler Whiting, Miss
Isabelle H. Hardie, Mrs. Charles F. Hoffman, Mrs. William W.
Hoppin, Jr., Mrs. Franklin D. Pelton.

The members of the General Committee are: Mrs. Henry M.
Alexander, Mrs. William Alexander, Mrs. J. Stewart Barney,
Mrs. O. H. P. Belmont, Mrs. William H. Bliss, Mrs. Oliver B.
Bridgman, Mrs. I. Townsend Burden, Jr., Mrs. Frederic Foster
Carey, Mrs. Francis Carolan, Mrs. Henry Ives Cobb, Jr., Mrs.
William H. Crocker, Mrs. Frederick Y. Dalxiel, Mrs. Howard

Davison, Duchesse de Chaulnes, Miss Elsie de Wolfe, Mrs. Wil-
liam K. Dick, Mrs. Charles H. Ditson, Mrs. Elisha Dyer, Mrs.
Harold Godwin, Mrs. Edwin Gould, Mrs. George Jay Gould,
Mrs. Jay Gould, Mrs. Charles E. Greenough, Mrs. P. Cooper
Hewitt, Miss Louise Iselin, Mrs. Bradish G. Johnson, Miss Luis-
ita A. Leland, Mrs. Goodhue Livingston, Mrs. John A. Logan,
Jr., Mrs. Charles McNeill, Mrs. John G. Milburn, Mrs. John
Purroy Mitchel, Mrs. Paul Morton, Mrs. Frederick Neil son, Mrs.
Charles de L. Oelrichs, Mrs. Charles M. Oelrichs, Mrs. Frederic
Pearson, Mrs. Franklin D. Pelton, Mrs. Henry Pierrepont Perry,
Mrs. Allison Wright Post, Mrs. Charles A. Post, Mrs. James
Brown Potter, Mrs. William Potter, Mrs. Alexander D. B. Pratt,
Mrs. Pulitzer, Mrs. Roche, Mrs. William Rockefeller, Mrs. Theo-
dore Roosevelt, Mrs. George Rose, Mrs. William F. Sheehan,
Miss Evelyn Rives Smith, Mrs. Ormond G. Smith, Mrs. Vivian
Spencer, Mrs. Leonard Thomas, Princess Pierre Troubetzkoy,
Mrs. Allen Gouveneur Wellman, Mrs. Charles W. Whitman, Mrs.
M. Orme Wilson, Mrs. Frank Spencer Witherbee.

The "Aviation Treasure and Trinket Fund" of the National
Special Aid Society which is patterned after the "Silver Thim-
ble" fund of Great Britain, is supervised by the Aviation Com-
mittee of the National Special Aid Society, of which Mrs. H. P.
Davison is honorary chairman and Mrs. William A. Bartlett is
chairman.

Conference Committee on

Preparedness

Headquarters: Forty-Second Street Building, New York City.

The Conference Committee on national preparedness was
founded in May, 1915 for the purpose of coordinating the efforts
of the organizations working to build up our national defenses.
The following organizations became affiliated with the Conference
Committee:

The Aero Club of America, the Woman's Section of the Move-
ment for National Preparedness, Amalgamated with the Na-
tional Civic Federation, the American Legion, the American Red
Cross, American Society of Aeronautic Engineers, Army League,
Automobile Club of America, Institute of Radio Engineers, Na-

tional Society for the Advancement of Patriotic Education, Na-
tional Aerial Coast Patrol Commission, National Security
League, the National Special Aid Society, the United States
Power Squadrons.

The Conference Committee has carried on an extensive cam-
paign of education on behalf of National Preparedness and
Universal Training.

Officers: Henry A. Wise Wood, Chairman; Alexander M.
White, Vice-Chairman ; Raymond B. Price, Treasurer; James E.
Clark, Recording Secretary.

The Pan American Aeronautic Federation

United States Headquarters: 297 Madison Avenue, New York.

The Pan-American Aeronautic Federation was founded as a
result of the conference of National Aero Clubs of North, Cen-
tral and South American countries held at Santiago, Chili,
March, 1916. In accordance with Article 2, of its statutes, the
purposes of the P. A. A. F. are:

(a) Spreading the knowledge of aeronautics by publications,
conferences and having aeronautic exhibitions of all kinds.

(b) Fostering the establishment of schools for training pilots
for aeroplanes, balloons and dirigibles.

(c) Fostering the establishment of schools for mechanics for
aeroplanes and dirigibles.

(d) Fostering the establishing on the American continent of
aerotechnical laboratories for testing and improving aeronautic
material and conducting of all kind of research.

(e) Fostering the study of the atmosphere of the American
Continents in cooperation with the observatories of the different
countries.

(f) Fostering the making and issuing of aeronautic and topo-

DEVELOPING NAVAL AERONAUTICS IN THE UNITED STATES 271

graphical maps to be used in the service of aeronautics in differ-
ent countries.

(g) Establishing aerodromes and setting apart proper land-
ing places for aircraft throughout the different countries.

(h) Fostering the study of the history, theory and applica-
tion of aeronautics pertaining to aerial navigation; including the
publication of literary works on same and introducing the study
of aeronautics in American Universities.

(i) Studying and analyzing the progress of aerial navigation
in the different countries.

The officers of the Federation are: Honorary president for
life, Mr. Alberto Santos-Dumont (United States); president,
Mr. Jorge Matto Gormaz (Chile) ; first vice-president, Mr. Cort-

landt F. Bishop (United States); second vice-president, Mr.
Marechal Borman (Brazil) ; third vice-president, Mr. Joaquin C.
Sanchez (Uruguay); fourth vice-president, Mr. Amador F. Del
Solar (Peru); general secretary, Mr. Alberto Mascias (Argen-
tina); informing secretary, Armando Venegas (Chile); treasurer,
Mr. Severo Vaccaro (Argentine); directors, Mr. Manuel Semi-
nario (Ecuador); Roberto Araya (Paraguay); Colonel Mr. Car-
los Nunez del Prado (Bolivia).

The United States delegates to the Pan-American Aeronautic
Federation are: Scientific: Orville Wright; For Sports: Alan
It. Hawley; Juridical: Emerson McMillin; Military: Rear Ad-
miral Robert E. Peary; Public Education and Industries:
Henry Woodhouse.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER XXXVI

RULES GOVERNING TESTS FOR THE FEDERATION AERONAUTIQUE

INTERNATIONALE PILOT CERTIFICATES

Since the earliest stage of aviation in Amer-
ica certificates for balloon, aeroplane, and di-
rigible pilots have been granted under the rules
and regulations of the International Aero-
nautic Federation (Federation Aeronautique
Internationale), which controls all sporting
aeronautic events. The Federation which was
founded in 1905, and has its headquarters in
Paris, France, is represented in other countries
by their national aeronautic bodies. In the
United States its representative is the Aero
Club of America with headquarters at 297
Madison Avenue, New York City. Founded
in 1905, the Aero Club has taken the leading
part in the upbuilding of our aerial defenses.
The club appoints representatives to witness all
tests, and all pilot licenses are issued by its au-
thority. The Aero Club of America may
grant aeronautical and aviation pilots' certifi-
cates to persons who are over eighteen (18)
years of age, citizens of the United States, or
citizens of a country not represented in the
Federation Aeronautique Internationale, or
citizens of a country represented in the Fed-
eration Aeronautique Internationale, with the
permission of the representative organization
of the applicant's nationality.

The following are the rules under which cer-
tificates are granted by the Aero Club of Amer-
ica:

1. A person desiring a pilot certificate must
apply in writing to the secretary of the Aero
Club of America. He must state in his letter
the date and place of his birth, and enclose
therein two unmounted photographs of him-
self about 2 1 /4x2 1 / /> inches, together with a fee
of five dollars. In case the applicant is a nat-
uralized citizen of the United States he must
submit proof of naturalization.

2. On the receipt of an application the sec-
retary will forward it promptly to the Contest

070

Committee, which, in case of an application for
an aviator's certificate, will designate a repre-
sentative to supervise the test prescribed by the
International Aeronautical Federation, and
will advise the representative of the name and
location of the applicant and, through the sec-
retary* advise the applicant of the appointment
of the representative to take the test.

3. In case the application is for a spherical
balloon or for a dirigible balloon pilot certifi-
cate the applicant will be fully advised by the
Contest Committee.

4. All applications for aviator's certificates
must reach the secretary a reasonable time in
advance of the date that the applicant may ex-
pect to take the required test.

5. No telegraphic applications for certifi-
cates will be considered.

Applicants for each class of certificate must
be of the age of 18 years, and in the case of
dirigible certificates 21 years, and must pass,
to the satisfaction of the properly designated
representatives of the Aero Club, the tests pre-
scribed by the Federation Aeronautique Inter-
nationale as follows:

Spherical Balloon Pilot's Certificate

Candidates must pass the following tests:

(A) Five ascensions without any condi-
tions.

(B) An ascension of one hour's minimum
duration undertaken by the candidate alone. '

(C) A night ascension of two hours' mini-
mum duration comprised between the setting
and the rising of the sun.

The issue of a certificate is always optional.

Dirigible Balloon Pilot's Certificate

Candidates must be 21 years of age.
They must hold a spherical balloon pilot's

EDERATION AERONAUTIQUE INTERNATIONALE CERTIFICATES 278

Fhrfratwn Akkonautique

Internationale

AERO CLUE OF AMERICA

The above-named Club, recognized
bv the Ftf'lvrfttion Aeronaut jqtie
Internationale, as tbc governing
nuUmrity for tbu United States of
America, certifiw t hat

born./f?. /'.day o( J. <•;/*/:... \$fS

has fulfilled all 1 beyond i lions required
by the Federation Aerouauti<|uc Inter-
nationale, for ah aviator pilot, and is
brevetted as such.

Pr/sidciil.

Facsimile of the Pilot certificate. It is bound in leatherette and two additional pages contain information
in different languages for the authorities.

rtificate and furnish proof of having made

enty (20) flights in a dirigible balloon at

Terent dates.

They must also undergo a technical ex-

tination.

In case, however, the candidate does not al-

idy possess a spherical balloon certificate, he

ist have made twenty-five (25) ascensions in

•igibles before he can apply for a certifi-

:e.

The application for the certificate must be

untersigned by two dirigible balloon pilots,

10 have been present at at least three of the

partures and landings of the candidate.

The issue of the certificate is always op-

>nal.

Aviator's Certificate

1. Candidates must accomplish the three fol-
ding tests, each being a separate flight :
A and B. Two distance flights, consisting

at least 5 kilometers (16,40-1 feet) each in
closed circuit, without touching the ground

water, the distance to be measured as de-
ribed below.

C. One altitude flight, during which a
height of at least 100 meters (328 feet) above
the point of departure must be attained; the
descent to be made from that height with the
motor cut off. A barograph must be carried
on the aeroplane in the altitude flight. The
landing must be made in view of the observers,
without restarting the motor.

2. The candidate must be alone in the air-
craft during the three tests.

3. Starting from and landing on the water
is only permitted in one of the tests A and B.

4. The course on which the aviator accom-
plishes tests A and B must be marked out by
two posts or buoys situated not more than 500
meters (.547 yards) apart.

5. The turns round the posts or buoys must
be made alternately to the right and to the left
so that the flight will consist of an unin-
terrupted series of figures of 8.

6. The distance flown shall be reckoned as
if in a straight line between the two posts or
buoys.

7. The landing after the two distance flights
in tests A and B shall be made:

274

TEXTBOOK OF NAVAL AERONAUTICS

(a) By stopping the motor at or before the
moment of touching the ground or water;

(b) By bringing the aircraft to rest not more
than 50 meters (164 feet) from a point indi-
cated previously by the candidate.

8. All landings must be made in a normal
manner, and the observers must report any ir-
regularities.

The issuance of the certificate is always op-
tional.

Official observers must be chosen from a list
drawn up by the governing organization of
each country.

Hydroaeroplane Pilot's Certificate

The tests to be successfully accomplished by
candidates for this certificate are the same as
those for an aviator's certificate, except that
starting from and landing on the water is per-
mitted for all of the tests.

Licenses

Every person holding a pilot certificate of
the Federation Aeronautique Internationale
may obtain the license issued optionally by the
Contest Committee of the Governing Board to
its own citizens or those under its jurisdiction.
This license constitutes the title "qualification"
which alone allows the holder to act as pilot in
events governed by the present regulations of
the Federation Aeronautique Internationale.
It is independent of those set forth in Article
28 of the Statutes of the Federation Aero-
nautique Internationale.

Application for License

All applications for licenses must contain the
following particulars: name and surname, date
of birth, nationality, origin and number of
pilot certificate.

Every request must be accompanied by the
certificate.

Validity and Withdrawal of a License

A license shall be valid until the thirty-first
of December of each calendar year.

It may not be withdrawn either temporarily

or definitely by the Contest Committee excep
after approval by the national governing bodj

Expert Aviator

The Aero Club of America, having estal
lished the grade of expert aviator, has h-
structed its Contest Committee to prescribe tit
qualifications for that grade and to make th
necessary rules.

The following is published for the inform;
tion and guidance of all concerned :

The Aero Club of America may grant a ce
tificate as expert aviator to all aviation pilo
holding certificates under the Regulations (
the Federation Aeronautique Internationa]
who are over 21 years of age, and have bee ■
recommended for this by the Contest Con
mittee. An aviator desiring this certifies
must apply in writing to the secretary of tl
Aero Club of America giving the sum of fr :
dollars. He must pass, to the satisfaction i :
properly designated representatives of tl
Aero Club of America, at a place and da
fixed by the Contest Committee, such tests .
may be prescribed for the calendar year
which he may take his tests.

Holders of the expert certificate are pe
mitted to fly over cities in straight flight ar ;
the privilege of using Governor's Island, Ne
York as a temporary landing station is e
tended to them by Chief of the Department •
the East.

Tests for Calendar Year 1917

Each applicant must pass a thorough phyj
cal examination by a reputable, compete)
physician, designated by the Contest Cor
mittee of the Aero Club of America. The a
plicant must posses normal heart and lungs -
well as normal sight and hearing and shall
free from all nervous affections. In case t
physician is in doubt as to the physical st
bility of the applicant, an examination shall ■:■
made immediately following a trial flight *
determine this po'int.

After passing the physical examination t .-
applicant must pass the following tests :

1. A cross-country flight, from a designat :

FEDERATION AERONAUTIQUE INTERNATIONALE CERTIFICATES 275

starting point to a point at least 25 miles dis-
tant and return to the starting point with-
out alighting.

2. A glide, without power, from a height of
2500 feet, coming to rest within 164 feet of a
previously designated point without the use of
brakes.

3. A figure eight around two marks, 1640
feet apart. In making turns, the aviator must
keep all parts of his apparatus within semi-cir-
cles of 164 feet radius from each turning mark
as a center.

The issuance of the certificate is optional
with the Aero Club of America.

Memoranda:

CHAPTER XXXVII

IDENTIFICATION MARKS FOR AIRCRAFT

Distinctive marks for identifying aircraft
have been adopted by the nations at war.
Such marks are painted on both upper and
under side of the wings and on the real con-
trols, that they may be clearly distinguished
from every point of view. There have been
few cases of a nation using a captured aircraft
to deceive its enemy. The United States Army
has used a star and the Xavy an anchor as dis-
tinguishing marks. The American seaplane
Vera Cruz flew the American flag.

An Austrian seaplane with wings marked
with the Iron Cross is shown in chapter on
Anti-Aircraft Guns.

On May 20, 1917, Secretary Daniels an-
nounced the adoption of an efficient insignia for
all aeroplanes, seaplanes, captive balloons, and
dirigibles. The insignia of the flying corps
combines the red, white, and blue of the national
emblem, consisting of a white star with red cen-
ter on a blue circular background. The official
order for the adoption of the new aero insignia
for the Xavy follows :

"A five-pointed white star inside of a blue
circumscribed field, with the center of the star
red. The diameter of the circumscribed circle
will be equal to the chord of the wing on which
the insignia is placed. The diameter of the
inner circle will not extend to the inner points
of the star by an amount equal to one twenty-

fourth of the diameter of the circumscribed cir-
cle. The inner circle will be painted red; that
portion of the star not covered by the inner cir-
cle will be painted white, and that portion of
the circumscribed circle not covered by either
inner circle or star will be painted blue. The
shades of red, white and blue will be the same
as those used in the American Flag."

The order in regard to naval craft continued:
"One of each of these insignia will be placed
on the upper surface of each upper wing, and
one of each in a corresponding position on the
lower surface of each lower wing. Both sides
of that portion of the rudder which is in rear
of the rudder post will be painted with three
equally wide bands, parallel to the vertical axis
of the aeroplane and colored red, white and
blue of the same shades as mentioned herein-
before, the blue band being nearest the rudder
post, the white band in the center, and the red
band at the tail of the rudder.

"One of these insignia will be placed on top
and one on bottom of gas bag of dirigible bal-
loon, the center of each insignia being in the
vertical plane through the fore and aft axis of
the gas bag. The center of insignia on top
will be sixty feet from forward end and the
center of insignia on bottom will be just for-
ward of suspension band. The circumscribing
circle of insignia for dirigible will be five feet

RED i;v,'^v-'' 1

WtNG INSIGNIA

WHITE [

RUDDER INSIGNIA

Regulation Insignia for United States Navy Seaplanes.

IDENTIFICATION MARKS FOR AIRCRAFT

Identification marks painted on the

aeroplane winps by the countries at war
to distinguish them. The United States
Aviation Section has adopted a star, to
be painted on aeroplane wings.

in diameter. The rudder of each dirigible will
be marked in a manner similar to that applied
to aeroplanes, except that stripes will not exceed
five feet in length or eighteen inches in width.
If there is more than one rudder only the out-
board side of each outboard rudder will be

The building number of each aircraft will be
placed in figures three inches high on each side
of the rudder, at the top of the white band
hereinbefore mentioned. No other markings
shall be placed on any Navy aircraft, except
such as may hereafter be prescribed. All Navy

/'

marked. One of these insignia will be placed
on top and bottom of gas bag of captive bal-
loon, the center of each insignia being in the
vertical plane through the fore and aft axis of
the bag, and two and one-half feet aft of the
seam joining nose to main body. The circum-
scribing circle will be five feet in diameter.

aircraft will be immediately marked in accord-
ance with this order, and in future, specifica-
tions for Navy aircraft will require that the
contractors place the building number and dis-
tinguishing insignia on all aircraft, and on such
spare parts as bear these marks in completed
aircraft."

Flag used on early American seaplanes.

Identification mark on British seaplanes.

INDEX

Compiled by Howard L. Goodhart

PACK

Abbott, Brig. Gen. C W., Jr 168

Acceptance tests 234

Accidents, cause of 81

Accuracy due to aerial photography 121

Actual direction of flight v 106

Active-service assignments from Naval Re-
serve Flying Corps 154

Acosta, Bertrand B 49

Adalia, allied operations against 26

Adjustment of safety straps 88

Adler, Clement 188

Administration of naval aeronautic sta-
tion 69

Advancement aeronautical work 1 39

Advisory Committee on Aeronautics 140

Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, Na-
tional 265

duties of 265

personnel of 265

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 265

sub-committees, aerial mail service, aero-
torpedoes, aircraft communications,
aeroplane mapping, bibliography of
aeronautics, buildings, laboratories
and equipment, design, construction
and navigation of aircraft, govern-
mental relations, nomenclature, pat-
ents, physics of the air, power plants,
relations of the atmosphere to aero-
nautics, standardization and investi-
gation of material, foreign representa-
tives.

Aerial Age Weekly. N. Y. City 197

attack on seaplane carrier 12

attacks on ships 10

attack on submarines 45

Coast Patrol 41, 170

Unit No. 1. Photo 170, 173

Unit No. 2 176

Unit No. 3 176

Unit No. 4 176

Commission 269

stations 1 59

French 8

defense needed in U. S 64

navigation, instruments for 129, over

water 104

operations independent of fleet 6

photography 121

reconnaissance 121

reserve squadron 49

strategy and tactics 3

Aero camp, U. S. Navy. Photo 134

Aero Club of America,

9. 19, 53, 156. 157. 158,

159, 160, 162, 166, 167. 173. 272, 273. 274

Introduction 268

of Baltimore, Buffalo, Connecticut. Colo-
rado. Dayton, de Cuba, Iowa, Illinois,
Michigan. New York, New England,
Northwest, Ohio, Pennsylvania. Pitts-
field, Queen City, St. Louis, Wash-
ington 269

Aerologic station 71

Aerodynamic Experimental Researches on

the Resistance of air 249.254,260

Institute of Saint-Cyr 249, 251

instrument 88

Aeromarine flown by Clarence A. de Giers.

Photo 100

motor, 193. Photo 233,241

Plane & Motor Co 144, 163, 270

seaplane, cut of 194

Aero motor, Thomas, showing self-starter,
double magnetos, tachometer drive,
stabilizer drive, gasoline, cooling, cir-
culating pumps 232

Antoinette 227

Aeromarine. Photo 233, 241

Anzani 227

Atwood 12-cylinder. Photo 234, 241

Austro- Daimler 228

Ashmusen 12-cylinder. Photo 238, 241

Beardmore 228

Beecher horizontal. Photo 235

Curtiss 227, 241

Photo 231

Clerget 228, 229

Photo 230

Canton-Unne 228

ChristofTerson, 135 horse-power. Photo.

237, 241

Detroit gas turbine. Photo 235, 241

Duesenberg 12-cylinder. Photo 238,241

E. N. V 227

Fiat 228

Photo 212

Gnome 227, 241

Photo 229

PAGE

Aero motor — Continued

Green 227, 228

Gyro rotary. Photo 236, 241

General Ordnance Co. 200-horse-power.

Photo 237. 241

Hispano-Suiza 229

Photo 239

Hall Scott 227, 241

Photo 231

Isotta-Fraschini 200-horse-power 228

Photo 2S<*

Knox 12-cylinder. Photo 237.241

Le Rhone 228, 229

Photo 230

Mercedes 228

Photo 229

Martin 12-cylinder. Photo 237

Maybach 200-horse-power. Photo .... 235

Maximotor Co. Photo 236, 241

Monosoupape 228

Napier 229

Nieuport 227

Orlo. Photo 238, 241

Packard 250-horse-power. Photo... 236, 241

R. A. F. Photo 228

R. E. P 227

Rolls-Royce 228

Renault 227

Sterling-Sunbeam, 12-cylinder. Photo.

239, 241
Sturtevant, 8-cylinder engine, 140-horse-

power. Photo 232, 241

Thomas. Photo 232, 241

Trebert revolving. Photo 234, 241

Vivinus. Photo 227

Van Blerck. Photo 233. 241

Wright 227, 2V

Wisconsin. Photo 234, 241

Williams 125-horse-power. Photo.. 238, 241

Backus 241

Bates 241

Brennan 241

Emerson 241

Frederickson 241

Harriman 241

iohnson 241

[emp 241

Kessler 241

Macomber 241

Manly 241

MufHcy 241

New Jersey Aeroplane 241

Nilson-Miller 241

Oldfield 241

Rausenberger 241

Roberts 241

Robinson 241

Tone 241

Wills-Adams 241

weight 227

Wright 227

Aeronautics in relation to naval architec-
ture .» 242

textbook on military 112. 120, 125, 128

naval Introduction

Aeronautic service in the U. S. Navy 138

center, plan of 70, 71

station, U. S. Naval. Photo 74

regulations automobiles 72

barracks 76

fire 72 t 73, 74

f general rules 82

iberty 75

log 77

officers 77

procedure before flight 78

procedure during flight 79

procedure after flight 81

procedure in general 81

routine 76

school in England 86

ships 69

shop 75

station 69

uniforms 75

visitors 74

wash-women 74

watch 76

Aeronautic duty, qualification of officers.... 146
division consists of two aeronautic sec-
tions 155

equipment of U. S. Navy 144

naval militia 155

naval militia, development of 1 56

needs of U. S. Navy 1 50

section First Battalion, Naval Militia.

New York 165

squad authorized by Governor Walsh.. 160

station in Maine 1 59

279

PAGX

Aeronautical instruments 130

aeroplane director 130

air-speed meter 130

angle of attack indicator 130

barometer or altimeter 130

barograph 130

compass 130

distance indicator 130

drift-meter 130

gasoline feed system pressure indicator. 130

gasoline flow indicator 130

gasoline gauge 130

inclometer 130

oil gauge 1 30

oil pressure gauge 130

radiator temperature indicator 130

sextant 130

stallomcter 130

tachometer 130

Aeronautical Society of California 269

Aeroplane a match for Zeppelins 196

as an escort for Zeppelins 196

compass, new type of. Photo 131

crew 82

diagram drawing. Photo 205

directors 132, 133

first attacks England 118

first attacks France 118

first attacks Germany 118

first test of wireless from U. S. Navy.. 124

fitted with pontoons. Photo 186

engine 1 39

gun, Lewis type, mounted to fire through

hollow propeller shaft. Photo 60

gunnery 112

Aeroplane guns 112

guns and aerial gunnery 112

gun, Vick's marine. Photo 112

hit. comes down safely 114

inclinometer. Photo 132

mapping 265

motors, specifications of Navy Dept.... 232

of the L. W. F. type 161

observer 171

oil gauge. Photo 132

patrol of our North Atlantic Coast
from Roanoke Sound to Portland.... 172

radio set 1 24

ship. Photo 24

shop work 88

signals 114

towed by U. S. Naval tug Potomac

across Hampton Roads. Photo 180

Aeroplanes carrying food 25

carrying torpedoes 18

made it possible for British to wreck

Konigsberg, German cruiser 114

size of 5

two presented to New Jersey Naval Re-
serves by Inglis M. Uppercu, Presi-
dent of the Aeromarine Plane &
Motor Co., and personnel of the Avia-
tion Detachment. Photo 1 63

Aeroplane's instrument board. Photo 129

Aero torpedoes 265

Aircraft, development of Introduction

Club of Peoria 269

communications 265

Company, lnc 141

brought down in 1916 61

approaching each other, rules for 85

direct planting mines 51

Aircraft first attacks submarine 42

guns 20

guns, attacking ships with 20

manufacturers' association 269

mother ships 24

meeting each other, rules for 85

locating submerged mines 51

overtaking each other, rules for. » 85

station administration 87

Air cruisers 112

drift indicator 103

flash 79

distribution manifold. Photo 210

ducts, air valves, and air manifold of

dirigible 209

gauge 79, 188

pressure on fire extinguisher 79

pilot maps 129

speed meter 130, 131, 188

speed meters of Pilot type 131

service, development of, more important

than army or navy Introduction

Airworthiness 190

Ailerons 88, 187, 192

Aileron control wheel 90

shoulder yolk 91

wires 90, 91

Albatross biplane 228

280

INDEX

PAGE

Alger, Russel A 268

Alignment of waves crests 1 09

of the adjustable lubber line 109

Allen, A. Livingston 49

Allen, Ensign F. S 161

Allen, Philip 176

Allies, The 228

Altimeter 130, 131. 188

Altitude meter or aviation barometer. Photo 131

Altitude of kite-balloon 113

Altitude, change of an aeroplane instru-
ments 130

Aluminum i 88

"America" under way. Photo 189

America Trans-Oceanic Company training

unit . at Port Washington 174

American Aero Motors 227

first aerial suomarine hunt 48

hydroaeroplane altitude record ....149, 150

Institute of Electrical Engineers 183

motors 227

steamer "Cushing" attack by aeroplane. 12

steel works 239

Society of Aeronautical Engineers 183

aero motor, manufacturer's difficulty in

obtaining high-power steel 238

three-motored seaplane. Photo 4

Ames. Allan 173

Amory. Ensign F. S 161

Anemometer speed, or real speed of flight,

106. 109

Anemoter Ill, 131

Aneroid 108, 109

Angle between stream-lines and the major

axis of the aircraft 106

Angle of incidence 79

Angle of incidence indicator Ill

Angle of attack indicator 130, 133

Annapolis aerodrome. Photo 137

Annapolis 1912 aviation camp. Photo 136

"Anne," seaplane carrier 25

Anti-aircraft gun, U. S. Navy. Photo.

53, 55, 58

gun, British. Photo 54, 57, 61, 63

guns on German motorboats. Photo.... 55

gun, French. Photo 59

gun, mounted on German submarine.

Photo 60

gun, on British ammunition barge on

the Tigris. Photo 61

Anti-aircraft guns, U. S 53, 54

gun appropriation 54, 57

guns, German 55

defenses 53, 57, 63

projectiles 55

guns 274

Antoinette motor 234

gunner ready to snipe the enemy's air-
craft, after being warned by wire-
less 116

guns, range of 130

Antoinette motors. Photo 227

Antwerp bombarded 118, 120

Antwerp, shipyard near 41

Anzani motor 1 83, 227

Apparatus of aviation 260

Appointments to Naval Reserve Flying

Corps 153

Appropriation for establishing the Aerial
Coast Patrol under the direction of

the Navy Department 173

Appropriations for naval aeronautics 145

Ark Royal 26, 27

Ark Royal, British aeroplane ship. Photo.. 24

Armament of Zeppelins 196, 201

Armitage, G. H. 141

Amored cars in British Royal Naval Air

Service. Photo 61

Army appropriation bill 177

Arondel, Sub-lieutenant Maurice 113

Arnold, Flight Sub-lieutenant Harwood J.. 116

Arrows, steel were first bombs 119

Articles of equipment and outfit 210, 211

Artificial horizon Ill

Artillery wire 86

Ascension of kite-balloon 220

Ashrausen motor. Photo 238, 241

Assistance from aeronautics Introduction

attacking train of enemy's fleet, bomb-
ing, information as to the enemy,
seeing hostile mines and submarines,
spotting range of guns, torpedoing.

Astor, Ensign Vincent 166

Astor, Mrs. Vincent, christening the Second
New York Battalion seaplane. Photo,

164, 167

Atmosphere in relation to aeronautics 181

Attacking enemy aeroplanes, seaplanes, sub-
marines, air stations 171

Atwood motor. Photo 234, 247

Austrian seaplane brought down by French

gunners. Photo 62

anti-aircraft guns 55

Austro- Daimler engine 235

Austro-Daimler-Beardmore engine 228

Automatic pilot 102

pilot, flying with 107

pilot, flying without 108

pilot, Spcrry 127

synchronized gyro-compass 104

Automobiles 72

PAGE

Aviators 6

fly from and alight on deck of ship. ... 27

Aviator's certificate 27 1

Aviator's range of vision 46

Aviator, British naval, filming military ob-
servation. Photo 123

expert, certificate 272

Aviation barometer or altitude meter. Photo 131

motor of B. F. Sturtevant Co. Photo.. 232

motor of the Maximoter Co. Photo.... 236

Aviation school 97

stations for U. S. Coast Guard 267

Azimuth, compass 1 08

heading in 1 05

movement 1 08

true, no clue to 1 05

Babbington, Flight Commander Y. T 118

Backus, David C 176

Backus, Clinton David 1 82

Backus motor 241

Bacon, Vice-Admiral Reginald 25

Badger. Assistant Paymaster Harold S 116

Balfour. Hon. Arthur J Introduction, 202

223

223

116

37

Ballast of dirigible 214

Balloons 35, 36, 37, 48, 96

cementing 96

free 96

gear 96

handling 96

hydrogen plant 96

inflating 96

kite 96

making up 96

parts 96

repairs 96

Balloon, inflating for instruction at a U. S.
training aeronautical school. Photo.,
just leaving for a trip with pilot in-
instructor and students at an aero-
nautical station "somewhere in

America." Photo

naval kite guarding French harbor....

-ship. Photo 34, 35,

Balloonets of dirigible 209,213

Banking affects compass 105

indicator Ill

Barograph 79, 90, 91, 130, 133

Barometer 1 09

aviation or altitude meter 131

or altimeter 130, 131

Barometric pressure 131

>ressurc calculated at start of flight 131

height 131

Bart ett. Captain Robert A 183

Bart ett, Lieutenant H. T 142

Barton, Dr. F. A -188

Baruch, Bernard M 178

Base, difficult to find at night 126

Battleplane. Photo 23, 206

Bates motor 241

Bayshore, Long Island, on the shores of the
Great South Bay. ideal spot for sea-
plane work 165

Beaulieu, Lord Montagn of Introduction

Beardmore motor 228

Beatty, Sir David's report 24

Becue piloting Fabre hydroaeroplane. Photo. 181

Beecroft, David 183

Beecher horizontal motor. Photo 235

Beginners 85

Behavior of aeroplanes in gusts 181

Belgian coast 206

seaplanes in East Africa. Photo 82

Bellinger, Lieutenant P. N. L 142, 149

Belmont, August 183

Bellyband, or suspension band, of dirigible. 220

Ben-Ma-Chrcc, seaplane carrier 11, 123

seaplane carrier sunk in Kastelorizo

Harbor 26

attacked by German Fokker 12

Benson, Rear-Admiral William S 177

Benet-Mercicr gun 112

Benoist 191, 193

Benoist seaplane, cut of 191

Bcnz aero motor 227

Beresford, Lord Charles Introduction

Berlin, aviator 138

Berman, Lieutenant Francois 122

Benoist twin-motored seaplane. Photo 20

Bertholf, Ellsworth P 184

Bezel of the compass, use of scale upon... 107

Bichler, W 169

Bidders for construction 193

Bigsworth, Flight Commander R. N. A. S.. 199
Bigsworth, Squadron Commander Arthur W. 43

Bilge stringer of aero floats 247

Biplane, pontoons on 180

Albatross 22S

Biplanes, experiments with 261

Bishop, Acting Lieutenant Alan G 116

Blackburn, Flight Lieutenant Vivian G.... 116

Oregon Naval Militia 168

Meredith 166

floats 246

Charles A 166

W 162

Blasdel, Ensign F. G 177

Bleriot monoplanes 227, 253

Bleriot, Louis 1 78

Blair. G. T
Bladgen, F
Blade form
Blanchurd.
Blakely, H.

PACK

Bleriot, Louis, French inventor 33

Bleriot, cable for launching aeroplanes.

Photo 31

last experiment on water, 1906. Photo. 179

experiment. 1906 Photo 178

-Voisin partnership 178

"Blimps." The 204, 20S

photograph showing extent of employ-
ment by Great Britain. Photo 216

of a dirigible, close view. Photo 207

Bliss. E. W. Co M

Blood, Leon T 161

Blossom, Frank 176

Blower torch 83

Blower system of dirigible 214

Blue, Victor, chief of aeronautic bureau. . 93

Board of Aeronautics 136

Boat officer, duties of 77

Body of fusalege 88

Boehm, Reinhold 228

Boggis, Air Mechanic Ebenezer 116

Bolton, Chester C 178

Bomb dropped by an Allied dirigible on
a submerging German submarine.

Photo 41

dropping from aircraft . 118

dropping first case August 13, 1914,

German aviator threw at 118

dropped from aircraft, exploding in

water Photo 11

dropped from German aircraft, explod-
ing near a British ship. Photo 11

attached to under carriage of a dirigible.

Photo 207

Bombs dropped by French aviators on
German soil, German excuse for de-
claring war lig

effect of in French city. Photo 120

effect of Zeppelin on Antwerp. Photo. 120

description of 119

French aeroplane holder. Photo 118

incem iary 1 20

French aeroplane unexploded. Photo.. 119

method of dropping 204

found after bringing down Zeppelin.

Photo 119

number carried on Zeppelin 197

photograph of. Photo lis

switchboard of electrical gear for re-
leasing 197

less accurate than guns 47

Bombing 5 t 13

Antwerp by Zeppelins 1 18

Bruges nj

Cuxhaven 1 ig

Dover ng.

Friedrichshaven 118

Lure us

Metz 118

Or.tend , 1 1 8

Bonney, Leonard W 49

Boothby, Colonel F. E 150

Bore and stroke of areo motors 241

Borel, Denhaut type 182

Boring machine 93

Bosch principal of magnetos 95

Boteler, W H 158

Bottom stringer of aero floats 247

Boul type ig?

Bracing cables, interplane (lift wires) ...... $$

_ wires 88

Bradham, Captain Caleb D 177

Brandon. R. F. C 200

Brcguet. Constructor Louis 261

Breguct type 1 92

Brcnnan motor ] . ] 241

Brancker, General W. S ! 86

British Royal Flying Corps, report 228

Royal Flying Corps, rules 85

Admiralty report re Konigsberg 115

anti-aircraft defenses 58

aircraft gun. Photo 54, 57, 61, 63

armored cars. Photo 61

battleplane. Photo 12

balloon-ship. Photo 35, 37

Blimp dirigible entering its hanger near

•Salonika. Photo 212

kite-balloon ship. Photo .[ 34

method of taking aeroplane to ship.

Photo 34

Navy [[ 4i

naval aviators filming military obser-
vations 123

naval aviators, number of Introduction

Navy Air Service Introduction

seaplane of 1914 type equipped with

\ ick's marine aeroplane gun. Photo. 112

seaplane snapshots, Konigsberg 113

troops transported 41

seaplane station. Photo \\ 72

Brittain. Commander C. B '..', 136

Bristol, Captain Mark L .[[ 138

Photo '[[ j4£

Briggs, Commander E. F . . . 118

Briggs, Captain A. W ] * . 49

Brookins, Walter 187

Bromat, Lieutenant Commander of reaplane

No. 172 26

Brown, Lieutenant, observer on seaplane ... 26

Bronson, Lieutenant C. K 142

Brown, Willisby Land 173

INDEX

281

PAGE

Breslau and Goeben, German cruisers

bombed by Russian seaplanes 10

Bruges, attack by allied airmen 1 1

Bulletin of Naval Architects and Marine

Engineers 242

Bulkheads of aero floats 247

Bumps ; 117

Buoyancy of aero floats 248

Bureau of Steam Engineering of U. S.

Navy Department 237

Burgess Co 144, 161,

Burgess- Wright hydroaeroplane 27, 28

Burgess- Dunne seaplane with Sturtevant

motor. Photo 99,191

Burgess hydroaeroplane 193

Photo 142, 183

tractor piloted by Mr. Starling Bur-
gess. Photo 192

seaplane presented to the Massachusetts

Militia. Photo 1 60

-Dunne seaplane 1 66

Burleigh, Senator, of Maine 173

Butts of aero floats 247

Cabbot, Godfrey L 160, 161,

Cabot, Norman W 160,

Cable for launching aeroplanes 31,

launching devise

used in earliest experiments in launch-
ing hydroaeroplanes. Photo

Cailletet, M. M

Calibrate

Calibration 131,

California Naval Militia. Photo 156,

Camera

Camshaft 95.

of aerial motor

Canadian aviators

Canning, H. M. S. balloon-ship of British

Navy. Photo

Canton-Unne (Salmson ) motor

Capehart, Lieutenant W

Capsizing engine

Carburetor 78. 93.

jets, choakes

of aero motor 235.

theory of

troubles

zenith

Car of dirigible 209,

Carey, Lieutenant G. G. Photo

Carlock, Ensign

Carlstrom, Victor

Carson. Sir Edward. .. .Introduction, 39, 41.

Casualties

Catapult 29, 89,

launching device 135.

for launching seaplane. Photo ....31,
Catapults on the North Carolina for launch-
ing seapianes. Photo

Cat walk, or arched passageway, with a foot-
way 9 inches wide running along the

kee? of a Zeppelin

Caudron biplane 184,

Celezeny, Lieutenant, sinks French sub-
marine

Center of gravity, method of finding

Central Powers

Century Company 112. 120, 125,

Century Company, N. Y., publisher of

D'Orcy's Airship Manual

Certificate, Aviators'

dirigible balloon pilot

hydroaeroplane pilot

of qualification

pilot, issued by Aero Club of America.
Photo

spherical balloon pilot, test for

Certificates granted by Aero Club of Amer-
ica, and rules governing

Cernea, de Ed

Chalais-Mcndon 249,

Chambers, Captain W. 1 135, 136.

Captain \V. Irving developes catapult.
Change of altitude disturbs aeroplane in-
struments

of temperature disturbs aeroplane in-
struments

Chanute-VV right gliders

Chapin, Arthur

Chemet

Chevalier. Lieutenant G de C Photo.. 142.

Chew, Lieutenant F. T

Child, Lieutenant Warren G

Christenson self-starter

Chistofferson seaplane, cut of 193.

Christofferson 135-horsc-power motor. Photo

ChristorTerson motor Photo 237.

Circulating pumps of aerc motor

Civilian organization, developing naval areo-

nautics in the United States

Civilians in the U. S. Nava. Reserve Flying
Corps

in Naval Flying Corps 1 44,

Clark, Captain Virginius E

Classification of Experimental Methods in

researches on the resistance of air..

Clerget motor 22$, 229,

revolving engine. Photo

climbing

182

161

33

135

140
249

79
150
157

86

1«M

235

6

221

218

142

237

95

95

241

95

95

95

214

166

167

161

45

88

91

136

33

37

197
185

44

94

227

128

196
273
272
274

147

273
272

272
176
250
138
28

130

130
178
159
192
146
177
14V
79
194
237
241
236

264

151
147
172

249

230

230

90

PAGE

Clinometers • 1 1 1

Clinometer. Sperry. Photo 134

Sperry dead beat 134

Clockwise 1 1 1

Coast Artillery Journal 172

Coastal reconnaissance, duties of coast patrol

aviators 171

type usbmarinc 48

Coast Patrol Airships 204

aviators, duties of 171

dirigible at Salonika. Photo 203

dirigible. Italian. Photo 51

dirigibles 148

Cock-pit ot Curtiss aeroplane flown by

Carlstrom in Chicago-New York flight. 134

passengers 88

pilots '. 88

with arrangement of the 140-mile send-
ing set and the experimental receiving
wireless apparatus, invention of
Captain C. C. Culver, of the L T . S.

Army. Photo 125

Cohen. Lieutenant A. M 174

Colardeau 249

Collier, Robert J 187

Collier and Bookins about to land by the
Atlantic fleet flagship Washington.
Mr. Collier went on board of the
ship and invited Rear-Admiral Oster-
haus to attend the Aero Show, May

9, 1912. Photo 187

Colt gun 112

Command of the air Introduction, 122, 171

Commandant of Naval District 152

Commissions granted to officers . 146

Committee, Advisory on Aeronautics 140

Committees of Council of National Defense. 264
oil, wool, steel, nickel, copper, leather,
rubber, cotton goods, woolen goods,
shoes, conservation of health and wel-
fare of workers, science ami research,
engineering, education, medicine, gen-
eral sanitation, medical section, labor
section, munitions standard, commer-
cial economy, general munitions, state,
food.

Communication, easy essential 171

Communications (radio, signaling, etc.) 270

Compass 89. 187

card 79

drift, with adjustable lubber. Photo.. 107

azimuth, terms of 108

gyroscopic 1 04

lubber line 1 08

magnetic unreliable for aerial naviga-
tion

mounting should provide for magnetic
material in construction of aircraft
and for heeling and dipping errors. .

Compasses 1 30,

two with synchronized drift set. Photo.

Congress 53, 54. 57, 138, 144, 145, 159,

Concentration of troop and utilization of

the resources of the nation 264

Connecting rod for lever 90

Connecting rods and bearings of aero

motor 234, 241

Connecticut Aircraft Company 141, 149

Naval Militia 1 58

Conners. William, Jr 176

Construction of floats 247

of a Nonrigid naval dirigible for coast

patrol 209

of fabric of dirigible 211

of and operation of kite-balloons 217

of aircraft by Government 138

Contact mines 52

Contest of seaplanes at Monaco. 1912.

Photo 193

Continuous picket line 181

Conton-Unnc motor 228

Contracts, acceptance tests 23 1

bids 237. 238

for construction of aero motors of

U. S. Navy 232

for seaplanes and kite-balloons placed by

Navy Department in 1916 144

inspection 237

subletting 237

specifications 232

Control, aileron wires 90

column ,)()

deperdussin 90

elevator lever Q <)

elevator wires u

lrvrr.N «»f wheels 193

rudder wires 90

wheel "0

Controls 78, S6. NX

Convoyed troop ships Introduction

Collidge. T. Jefferson 1 60. 1 65

Cooper, Ensign John 1) 1 58

Cooper Aeroplane Co . 193

Co-operation 7. 26

of air service . 4

Co-ordination of military, industrial and
commercial purposes in the location

of extensive highways 264

Cordon of aeroplanes 1 72

Cordova, British steamer attack by seaplane. 10
Cornell men at Thomas Aviation school.

Photo 98

104

131
131
107
173

PAGE

Corrections for movement Ill

Corry, Lieut. W. M 140

Cost 140

Cotter pins 83

Cottle. G. F., U. S. Navy 31

Council of National Defense 264

Couplings 190

Counter-clockwise Ill

Course of air service instruction in l\ S.

Navy 87

Course, holding a true 105

Courtney Squad Com 118

Courtney, C ommandcr 41

Crane for recovering seaplanes at sea 31

used in hoisting hydroaeroplanes. .27, 28

Crank case 82, 132

of motor, lower, upper 234

Crank shaft 200

and main bearings of aero motor 242

quality of steel necessary for 231, 232

Creagh-Osborne, R N., Captain 107

Creation of relations which will render pos-
sible in time of need the immediate
concentration and utilization of the

resources of the nation 265

Crew, number in. of Zeppelin 197

Crocco 179

Crocker Wheeler Co 270

Crompton, Dr. Henry E 264

Crosman, George L 1 59, 172

Cross. W. Redmond 269

Cross-hairs on telescope 1 06, 1 07

Crossley-Meates, Flight Lieut 42

Cuffley. bombed 199

Cull, Flight Commander John T 116

Culver, Captain C. C, wireless apparatus

invention 125

Cunningham, Lieut. A. A. Photo 142.. 135, 142
Current supply for Sperry night flying equip-
ment 1 27

Curtiss 9

aeroplane 135

Aeroplane Co... 141, 144. 148, 158, 160.

161, 193

biplane 1 84

experiments with pontoons 183

F., boat equipped with Sperry night fly-
ing equipment, consisting of a bank of
three lights which can be moved in
vertical plane, current being supplied
by wind turbine driven generator
shown to left of radiator on top plane.
Both the lights and generator can
be seen mounted on the leading edge

of the upper plane 127

Curtiss Flying Boat. Photo 22 30, 165

"flying boat." 1911. Photo 184

flying boat leaving deck of L-. S. Navy

North Carolina. Photo 32

floats 25

fog and thunder storm 174

Glen H... 164, 181

Glen H., introducing the hydroaeroplane

to U. S. Navy. Photo 30

Glen H., makes first hydroaeroplane

flight 27

Greely S 1 60

hydroaeroplane purchased by U. S.

Navy 181

hydroaeroplane 28, 169

200 horse-power 9

method for controlling the aeroplane,

diagram 91

motor. Photo 23 1 227, 241

of Marblehcad 1 73

piloting his hydroaeroplane at San Diego

in 1911. Photo 181

seaplane 1 82

seaplanes locate torpedo boat destroyers

in fog and thunder storm 174

seaplanes, cuts of 191, 202

seaplane, cuts of 202

school machine. Photo 75, 78

schools 164

twin-motored seaplane with which Victor
Carlstrom flew 614 miles in 8 hours

and 41 minutes. Photo 161

Triad 182

twelve-cylinder motor. Photo 231, 241

Cuxhaven. attack by an aerial squadron.... 7

harbor of 198

distance. Admiral Sir R 19

Cylinders of motor 234, 24!

Dalbias, Lieut. John Henry 171

Danger signals 85

Danger because of our unpreparedness,

Introduction
Daniels. Secretary .. 137, 139, 143. 144, 157,

173, 276

Dardanelles 113

Data as to the amount, location, method and

means of production and availability

of military supplies.
Data required with proposals for building

Navy Aeroplanes 191

Davis gun 112

Davis Non-recoil gun. Photo 5

Davison, Lieut. F. Trubee 14, 172, 173

Davison, H. P 173

282

INDEX

PAGE

Davison, H. P., Jr 173

Decks of cruisers for seaplane carriers.... 28

Deep sea vision 47

Defense, lines of Introduction

Deflation of dirigible 225

Delag of Frankfurt 198

Delay in ordering motors for aeroplanes. . . 229

in building aeroplane motors 230

De Montalent 183

Denton, E. A 163

Deperdussin type 1 83

control 90

method for controlling the aeroplane dia-
gram 90

Derricks for lowering seaplanes. Photo.... 24
Design, construction and navigation of air-
craft and construction of naval aero-
planes .• . 188

Designers, specially trained 139

Designing aeroplanes 149

Detecting submarines 47

Determination of the coefficient of air fric-
tion for various aeroplane and balloon

fabrics 150

Detroit gas turbine motor. Photo 235, 241

Development of aero motors in the great

war 228

of aeronautics in the naval militia 156

of aircraft Introduction

of seagoing transportation 264

of seaplanes between 1914-1917 184

Diagrams representing the results of experi-
ments in air-resistance 254

Diagram of control 90

Difference between aeroplane and airship.. 177

hydroplane and pontoon 177

Difficulties of aeronautic unit 165

Diffusion of dirigible 211

Dihedrally set planes 1 79

Dipping errors 131

Directive force of compass 131

Director of naval aeronautics 140

Dirigible. Photo 64, 69, 70, 86

patrolling Italian coast Photo 51

sheds, revolving 70

lack of 40

fuide ships through mine fields 52
talian, first to locate mine field 52

balloon pilot's certificate 272

spotting from 113

carrying radio sets 124

only aircraft to fly at night before the

war 1 26

first U. S. Navy 141,202

specifications of 141

bids on 141

Dirigible Introduction

building tests 150

Navy order 16 148

first U. S. naval. Photo 202

a small coast patrolled "somewhere in

Europe" 202

diagram of. Photo 205

Disappearing guns on submarines 56

Disassembly 88

Displacement of aero floats 247

District of Columbia 238

Distance of radio transmission per weight.. 124

Distance indicator 130, 133

Distance to be maintained by airships, rules. 85

Distinguishing hostile submarines 48

Distinguished service order given 171

Distributor 79

District of Columbia naval militia 158

Ditman, Albert 1 73

Divetain 183

Dixie principle of magnetos 95

Dogs 85

Dorand, Commander 253

Dor t sen, Lieutenant 135

D'Orcy's Airship Manual 196

Double Independent ignition 187

Double magnetos 1 87

Douglas. Lieutenant 26

Dover patrol 25

Dover raided by German seaplane 60

Dow, Col. Fred. N 159

Dowler, C. A 169

Drift compass with adjustable lubber.

Photo 107

Drift Indicator, new type of. Photo 106

Drift set, synchronized. Photo 106

Drift set, synchronized with two compasses.

Photo 107

of aeroplane 104

indicator using principle of stroboscope. 104

determination of 1 05

line of true course 110

meter 130, 132

side 109

Drill 93

"Drop Basket" 220

Dual Control 99

Duesenbcrg aero engine. Photo.. 193, 238, 241

Dunkirk Aerodrome 25

Dunkirk 171

Dunkirk, squadron of the R. N. A. S 197

Dunlap. David 176

Dunne, Miss Mona. Photo 161 1 58

Durham 202

Duplicate control leads 188

Dust 82

PAGE

Duties and requirements of Naval Reserve

Flying Corps 152

of coast patrol aviators 171

Dyer, Lieut. Reuben K 159

Eastgate, British freighter 45

Economic efficiency requires similar machin-
ery for commercial and military pur-

5 oses 264

s, Lieut. W. A 142

Ehrhardt factory at Dttsseldorf, Germany.. 56

Eiffel, M 252-261, incl.

Eiffel, G 249

Eiffel's laboratory showing suction blower.

Photo 251

experiment chamber. Photo 252

"Eiffel Method" 253

Electrical tachometer should not be subject
to disturbances in the conductivity of
circuits or to deterioration of mag-
netism of a permanent magnet 132

Elevator Control Wheel 90, 91

Control wires 90, 91

Ellahammer, Danish inventor 34

Ellyson, Lieut. T. G 29. 30, 181

Lieut. Catapulting into the air. Photo. 31
Lieut, experimenting in launching hy-
droaeroplane 135, 136

Photo 140

Ely, Eugene 27, 33

launching hydroaeroplane experiments.

Photo 32

making flight from warship. Photo.... 27
landing on aeroplane platform in 1911.

Photo 32

Emerson aero motor 241

Emergency 1 39

Empennage consisting of two planes 179

Endurance, limit of 117

Engine, aeroplane 86, 1 39

bed, joint fittings 93

of dirigible 209

test of dirigibles 215

tests 237

see motor 237

sec aero motor 230

pistons, piston rings, connecting rods
and bearings, crank shaft, push rods,
valve gear, rocker arm, intake mani-
fold and carburetor 227

E. N. V. motor 227

Engadinc, seaplane carrier 7, 24, 35

England 199, 200

raid on 202

Envelope of dirigible 209

Enlisted men in air service 87

in naval flying corps 145

at Pensacola Photo 149

Enrollments in naval reserve flying corps... 152
Equipment furnished to State naval militia
by department of naval militia affairs

at Washington 165

Equipment for aircraft station 66

Equilibrium 88, 102

Erecting shop 92, 94

Ericsson 17

Essex bombarded 197, 201

Establishment of Government plant for the

general manufacture of aircraft 139

Estey, Raymond N 169

European aero motors 228, 231

Evans, Lieut. F. T 142

Evers, Capt. Edward A 177

Evolution of the aero motor 227

Evolution of the seaplane and the flying

boat 177

Exhaust pipes 88

Expenditures, U. S. Navy for aeronautics.. 145

Experimental wind tunnel 142, 150

model basin 150

aeroplane 139

chamber Eiffel's Laboratory. Photo.... 252
Eyes of the fleet, British air service.

Introduction

Fabre. Henri 27 % 181

Fabric 88, 95, 225

application of dope to. 92

requirements for dirigibles 211

Factor of safety 191

in aeroplane construction 94

of dirigible 211

Factory, Government, for aircraft 138

Fallon, Henry M 169

Fane, Lieut. G. W. R 61

Farman, Henri, biplane 28, 184

Henri, biplane. Photo 29

Maurice, aeroplane 86, 184, 253

Farwell, John, 3d 1 73

Fearing, G. Richmond 160. 161

Federation, Aeronautique Internationale

272, 273, 274

Regulations of 274

Ferdinand, Count von Zeppelin 196

Fcrrand, Flight Lieut 11

Fiat, 40 horse-power motor 228

Photo 232

Fielder, W. G 169

PAGE

Fighting a battleplane from platform of

Zeppelin. Photo 199

Figure eights 89

Files. Prof. Geo. T 159

Filming military observation 123

Fins and rudders of dirigible 209

Fire regulations in aeronautic stations 72

procedure in case of 79

Fischer 182

Fiske, Rear Admiral Bradley A. Introduc-
tion 183

aeroplane gunnery 112

addresses Aeronautic Society 14

great possibilities for torpedoplane 16

paper on torpedoplane 15

patents torpedoplane 16

patents device for launching torpedoes

from aeroplanes 13

report on attacking ships with aircraft

guns 20

publishes article on naval power in

U. S. Naval Institute 21

says 100 battleplanes equal 60,000 rifles. 5

Fitzgerald, Capt. E. T 166

Congressman J. J 57

Flag Island 172

Flagg, Charles F 159

Flap, upper left wing 88

upper right wing 88

lower right wing 88

lower rignt wing lever 88

upper right wing lever 88

Flaps, setting balancing 92

Flat bottom floats 246

Fleischmann. Max C 182

Flight, actual direction of 106

over water, precautions in 108

by Ely from deck of warship. Photo.. 27

Flint. Albert H 183

C. L 161

Aeroplane Co 193

Flare, dropped by airman to see ship below.

Photo 127

parachute 126

Float, main 88

tail 88

left wing 88

right wing 88

Floats 186, 196. 198

aluminum with runners 187

aeroplane 242

construction of 247, 253

Floating anti-aircraft defenses 53

hangar of U. S. naval dirigible

"D. N. I." Photo 203

Flow of oil 132

Flying, boat developed from hydroaeroplane. 191

speed of 191

evolution of 186

at night 126

comments of Secretary Daniels 138

radius of 800 miles required 138

tests 90

lessons 88

built by General Aeroplane Co. Photo. 97

anti-aircraft defenses 53

over towns 85

at Bayshore 166

presented to Wisconsin Naval Militia.. 169

Flying corps, insignia of 276

Fog 102, 131

Folding 226

Foley, Capt. D. P 184

Foljambe, Eugene S 183, 184

Forbes, Duncan 176

Foreign representatives 181

Forlanini, Prof. Enrico 187

Forshew, Commodore R. P 166, 177

Framework of Zeppelin 197

France 41, 234, 255, 257. 259

Fran<;ois-Bcrnou. Lieut 12

Frankenfield, Dr. H. C 172

Frederickson aero motor 241

French anti-aircraft gun. Photo 59

government 230

seaplane aerial coast patrol 8

naval aircraft guns 55

seaplane. Photo 80

seaplane on submarine patrol. Photo... 44
aeroplane bomb unexploded. Photo... 119

aeroplane drives off U-boats 45

aeroplane bomb holder. Photo 118

aviator sinks Austrian submarine 42

seaplane carrier La Faudre. Photo .... 30

system of patrol against U-boats 50

French, Field Marshal Viscount 58

aviators 202

Friedrichshafen 199

Front part of Hying boat, outline of 110

Froude 186

Fuel tanks 196

Fuller, Percival 176

Fullerton, Captain 116

Functions of Naval Air Service 4

Funds, lack of 159. 162, 165, 167, 168. 169

Fuselage or body 88

metal cowling 88

Galatea, report from 24. 25

British ship 199

Gallaudet Company 141, 193

Gallaudet, seaplane. Photo 18, 191

Gambling risks in war-times 230

INDEX

283

PACE

Gardner, Hamilton }76

Garland, W. R 158

Garnctt, Lieut 26

Garrison, L. M 173

Gas valves and sight holes of dirigibles 209

Gasoline 78

gauge 130, 132. 196

flow indicator 130, 133

feed system pressure indicator 130, 133

transparency of 133

gauge should be mechanical 133

carburetor design 181

Gates, Artemus L • • • • 173

Gaudart. M. M 252, 253

Gay. Edwin F •• 178

Gena torpedoed by German seaplane 6, 19

General flying boat, cut of 194

hydro, cut of 194

Aeroplane Co 193

arrangement plans of aeroplane 198

specifications covering requirements of

aeronautic instruments 181

General Ordnance Company's motor. Photo.

237, 241
General Vehicle Company's aviation motor.

Photo ,.229, 241

Generator, wind turbine driven for Sperry

night flying equipment. Photo...... 127

German aeroplane bombing residence of King

Albert. Photo 57

submarine with anti-aircraft gun. Photo. 60

admiralty report 42

aviators attack submarine 42

anti-aircraft guns 56

high sea fleet 19

submarine seaplane carriers 53

seaplane raids Dover 60

cruiser Konigsberg snapshotted by Brit-
ish seaplane 113

cruiser Konigsberg bombarded, range

found by British seaplane 114

East Africa 114. 115

excuse for declaring war, claim French
aviators dropped bombs on German

soil 118

method of preventing American manu-
facture of high power steel 231

motor boats with anti-aircraft guns.

Photo 56

Government 23 1

aero motors 228

naval airship division 198

naval airship harbors 1 98

Airship Navigation Co 198

Germany 227, 228

Germany alone prepared in the line of large

dirigibles at beginning of war 196

Zeppelins service to 202

Germany's naval airships 197

Getaway 88

Getting under way 242, 247

Gifford. Walter S 178

Girl. Christian 184

Giving information to producers and manu-
facturers as to the class of supplies

needed by the Government 178

Gliding 79, 80, 85, 88

Gnome motor. Photo... 190, 191, 192, 193,

227, 229, 241

Godfrey, Hollis 178

Gompers, Samuel 1 78

Gondolas, Zeppelin 197

Goodrich. B. F„ Co 149

Goodyear, Frank 176

Tire & Rubber Co 141, 144, 149, 181

kite balloons 36

Gordon, Squadron Commander Robert 116

•Bennett race of 1910 227, 234

Gouin. lieutenant of aviation . . 253

Gould, Edwin, offers prize, twin-motored air-
craft 6

Earl 173

Government relations 181

and civilian organizations developing

naval aeronautics in the U. S 177

construction of aircraft 138

Governor's Island landing station 274

Grab ropes of dirigible 213

Gravitational error 131

gasoline feed 133

Gray, C. G., editor of London "Aeroplane" 39

Great Britain 204, 227

war 198. 228

Green engines 227-228

Grinding machine 93

in valves 92

Grinnell Aeroplane Company 141

Ground bank 98

Guaranty of dirigible 212

Guantanamo Bay, U. S. Navy aero camp.. 135

Guenzi, Angelo 3

Guggenheim. Harry F 183

Guiche, Duke of 250, 252

Guidoni, Captain Alessandro 13

of Italian Navy uses light short-distance

torpedo 17

Gunnery, aeroplane 112

Guns, aeroplane 112

three-inch 112

classes of 112

Lewis aeroplane 112

Vick's marine aeroplane. Photo 112

PACE

Guns, aeroplane — Continued

Vickers- Maxim 112

Colt 112

Benet Mercier 112

Davis 112

Guns more accurate than bombs 47

Gyro rotary aviation motor. Photo. .. .236, 241

Gyroscopic compass 1 04, 1 84

base lines Ill, 132

Haas, Lieut. F. G 142

Hale, Col. Frederick 159

Hall, Norman B 184

-Scott engine, 227 Photo 231 193. 241

motor 88

motor in Martin seaplane. Photo 99

Halla way 1 67

Hamburg, harbor of 198

Hammond, John Hays, Jr. .14, 172. 173, 182, 183
is meeting difficulty of launching large

torpedoes from seaplanes 14

Hampton, Virginia, field experiment station. 181

Hanuley, Page, battleplane 12

Hangar tents of U. S. Navy aero camp at

Guantanamo Bay. Photo 135

Hangars of Annapolis Aerodrome. Photo. 137

plan of 70

Hansa training airship 198

Harmonie, French steamer attacked by Aus-
trian submarine and aeroplane 10

Harriman aero motor 241

Harris, Ensign Lee H. Photo. ... 164, 166, 167

Hartmann. Major Carl F 97

Harvard Aeronautic Society 1 82

Hassell, B. R. J 169

Hawkins, Ashton T 176

Hawley, Allan R. .Introduction 14, 16, 53,
64, 157, 159, 160, 163, 167, 172,

182, 184

William 182

Hayford, John F 180

Headquarters' naval militia organizations... 155

Heavicr-than-air structures, experiments.... 186

Heeling error 104, 131

Height in flying 81

of aeroplane necessary before maneuv-
ering 80

to bomb submarine 47

to see submarine 46

Helicopter 34, 186

Heligoland, harbor of 198

Henderson. Gen 229, 230

Heinrich. Corp 193

Herbstcr, Lieut. V. D 142

Ensign V. D.. landing a Wright ma-
chine at Annapolis in 1912. Photo.

135, 139

Hermes, seaplane carrier 26

Hindenburg never sleeps 25

Hirth, German aviator 138

Hispano-Suiza engines, 229. Photo 239

History of the U. S. aerial coast patrol.... 172

Hogan, Wallace 1 76

Hooking up controls and leads 78

Hoover, Herbert C 178

Hoppin. Major F. L. V 182

Horizontal flight 79

flight, study of 256

movement of an aeroplane — the logarith-
mic polar curve 256

stabilizer 88

Horse-power curve 198

to weight of aero-motor 227

Hostile submarine, to distinguish 48

Howe, H 176

Hub face plates of propellers 197

Hudson, Harold 161

River not suitable for flying school... 165

Huff. Russell 183

Hulbert, Congressman Murray, of New

York 172. 183

Hunsacker, Naval Constructor J. C 149

Hurricane wrecks seaplane 162

Hurst, William C 141

Hyde. Kdw. W 1 59

Hydravians 263

Hydroaeroplane. Photo 8

altitude record, American 149

bids on 141

Burgess. Photo 102. 142

comments of Secretary Daniels 138

Curtiss 1 69

earliest experiments in launching.

Photo 1 40

first commissioned by naval reserve or-
ganization 1 58

in U. S. Navy. Photo 20

is an aeroplane intended to rise from

the water instead of the land 186

introduced to U. S. Navy by Glenn H.

Curtiss. Photo 30

1905 patent 187

needed for scouting 50

parts of 88

pilot's certificate 274

presented to the naval reserve of New

Jersey 1 63

raid 3

radio telegraphy 124

Sturtcvant 1 69

first contest at Monaco. Photo 184

PAG*

Hydroaeroplanes 1 93

specifications for 141

Hydrogen plant for balloons 96

Hydroaeroplane, the first of the U. S. Navy

aviation section. Photo 138

Hydroplane 186. 187, 188, 189, 242

floats 242

Hydrosurfaces 186

Identification marks for aircraft 276, 277

marks painted on aeroplane wings. U. S.
aviation section has adopted a star.

Photo 277

marks used on aeroplanes and seaplanes.
Photos (America, Austria, Belgium,
British, France, Great Britain, Rus-
sia, Servia, Turkey) 277

Ignition and auxiliary circuits 196

Illinois naval militia 158

Photo 161

Incendiary bombs 120

Incidence indicator. Photo 133

normal angle of 79

Incident wires 88

Inclinometer 130, 132

aeroplane. Photo 132

pendulum or spirit level type — 132

Increase of domestic production of articles

and materials essential to the support

of armies and of the people during the

interruption of foreign commerce... 178

Indicating instruments, compact, rugged,

light, accurate, reliable, durable 130

Inflation (by bottles) of kite balloon 220

Inflating a free balloon for instruction at a
U. S. training school. A course in
free ballooning is an essential part of
a course in operating kite balloons.

Photo 223

Ingraham, Wm. M 159, 172

Insignia 276

wing. Photo 276

rudder. Photo 276

Inspection 89

Inspection and repair of kite balloons 224

of dirigible 212

Inspectors for navy work 195

Installation 88

Institute of radio engineers 183

of Saint-Cyr 253

Instructor 89

Instrument board arrangements. Photo.... 211

shop work 88

board 196

board of an aeroplane. Photo 129

Instruments 1 96

Instruments for aerial navigation 129

barometer or altimeter 129

compass 129

air speed meter 1 29

inclinometer 1 29

drift meter 129

tachometer 129

oil gauge 1 29

oil pressure gauge 129

gaso inc gauge 129

gaso ine flow indicator 129

distance indicator 129

barograph 1 29

angle of attack indicator 129

radiator temperature indicator 129

gasoline feed system pressure indicator. 129

sextant 1 29

aeroplane indicator 129

stallometer 1 29

Instructograph, Sperry type 100

Insulation of dirigible 213

Insurance rates against enemy aircraft,

61, 62, 63

Intake manifold of aero motor 235

International Aeronautic Federation Head-
quarters in Paris. France, Repre-
sentative in U. S. Aero Club of

America 272

Interplane, bracing cables 88

strut 88

Interrupter gap 82

Inventory of 27,000 large industrial plants

for military purposes 179

Investigations of aviator wires and cables,

fastening and terminal connections. . 181

of balloon and aeroplane fabrics 181

of pilot tubes 181

Iron Cross 277

Italian coast patrol dirigible. Photo 51

dirigible first to locate mine field 52

observation balloon. Photo 36

Royal Navy experiments of Captain

Alessandro Guidoni 13

kite balloon ship 35

Italy 227

Isotta-Fraschini aero motor 228

Photo 239

anoir 138, 192

, anney Aircraft Co 193

ellicoe, Admiral Sir John 24

^ohnson aero motor 241

Johnson, Aymar 166

284

INDEX

ohnson, Lieut. E. F.

PAGE

142

Johnson, Senator Chas. F 159, 172, 173

, oiner shop 95

, oint Board of Aeronautics 4

, ones, Dr. E. Lester 172

,'oy. Henry B 182

, urisdiction over naval anti-aircraft de-
fenses 57

Jutland sea battle. Photo 7

battle of 24

Kahn, Congressman Julius, of California.

172, 173

Kaiser. The 227

Kansas City Aero Club 265

Keel line 109

planes 200

Kemp aero motor 241

Kennedy, William P 183

Kentish knack 200

Kershaw, Flight Lieut 26

Kessler aero motor 241

Kiel harbor 197

King-Hall, Vice- Admiral 115

Kitchener, Lord 5, 60

Kites, practice shooting at 63

Kite balloon Introduction, 36, 217

being inflated. Photo 35

carriers 35

mother ship. Photo 34

as lookouts for submarines 48

observer detecting submarine. Photo... 43

watching for submarines. Photo 42

spotting from 113

altitude of 113

guarding French harbor. Photo 116

aerodrome, location of 218

modern features of. Photo 219

contracts for 144

Klimburg, Lieut, von 44

Knapp seaplane station 176

Knox, Seymour 176

Knox motor. Photo 237

Konigsberg, Harbor of 198

snapshotted from British seaplane 113

bombarded, range found by British sea-
plane 115

one of the destroyed guns. Photo 115

Konijovce, Lieut., rescues crew of sub-
marine 44

Kress. William 177

Kress's, William, aeroplane fitted with pon-
toons. Photo 177

Kroner, Samuel 1 58

Krupps 55

Krupp Steel Works 231, 232

Kut, surrender of British forces at 25

Laboratory tests , 195

Labouchere. M 252

Lackaze, Admiral 50

Lack of anti-aircraft defenses 63

Lag of magnetic compass 1 05

Lambert, Comte (ie 186

Lambert, Albert Bond 137

Lamont, Ensign W. D 138

Lancaster, F. W., British aeronautic au-
thority 55

Landing 79, 81, 88, 98, 100

marks 85

Landing gear and floats of dirigible 209

Langley 9

Langmore. A. M 25

Latham's monoplane 227

Lathe 93

Launching aeroplane by Bleriot cable. Photo 31

aeroplane by catapult 29, 30

trucks 187

impulse on catapult 188

French seaplane. Photo 80

hydroaeroplane, earliest experiments in.

Photo 140

seaplane by catapult. Photo 31

Lawrence, Charles 165, 166

Lawrence- Lewis flying boat. Photo 102

Lawrence- Lewis Co 193

Lawson, C. R.. of British army aviation.... 28

Laying out of balloon 217

Leaks 82

Leavitt, Frank M.. expert of E. W. Bliss

Co., developing VVhitehcad torpedo... 14

Lectures 88

Lee, Ensign W. A 163

Leg rand 251

Le Rhone engine 228, 229

Photo 230

Lessons 88

Levasseur 192

Leveque, type of seaplane 192

Lever, lower right wing flap 88

upper right wing flap '. 88

Lewis aeroplane gun mounted to fire through

hollow propeller shaft. Photo 60

Lewis aeroplane gun 112, 175

Licenses 274

application for 274

validity and withdrawal of 274

Lift angle, maximum 99

PAGE

Lift of Zeppelins 197, 198, 199, 200, 201

Lift of the wings 243

Lighting cells, wiring and lamps of dirigible 216
Lights, bank of three which can be moved
in vertical plane in Sperry night-flying

equipment 1 27

how controlled 127

Limiting speeds of an airplane for planing. 261

Lincoln. J. G. F. S 161

Lines of defense Introduction

Liquid type of magnetic compass 105

Listening towers 53, 70, 71

Little wood, Lieut 129

Little, Rear Admiral William X 183

Load, useful, of dirigible 210

Locating submerged mines with aircraf t . . 5 1 , 52

mines 174

torpedo boat destroyers in a fog and

thunderstorm 174

Location of railroads with reference to the

frontier of the U. S 178

of kite balloon aerodrome 218

Lodge. Senator Henry Cabot 161

Log sheets, aeroplane 83

Logan. Brig. Gen. Albert J 168

London 211

defenses 58

Longitudinal axis of the aircraft 109

inclinometer ! H8

stability 190

control 190

Longitudinals 95

Longmore, Wing Commander 118

Looping 101

Looi* tools T8

Lovett, Robert A 173, !76, !82

Lower safety and gas control valve. Photo. 208

crank case of motor 234

Lubber, adjustable for drift compass 109

Photo 107

line, deflection of 1C7

line of the compass, alteration of the

position of line displaced 108

Lubricating 82

Luckey, William S 168

Ludlow. Israel, kite. Photo 180

LuftschifT. indicated by L mark 197

Luzon, Isle of 1 58

L. mark ( LuftschifT) 197

L. W. F. seaplane, cut of 194

Engineering Co .183, 193

type seaplane presented to the Michigan

Militia. Photo 162

Machinery, shopwork 88

Machinists, aeronautic 87, 93

Macomber aero motor 241

Maddox, Ensign Charles H 124

Mafia Island aerodome 115

Magnetic compass, lag of 105

Magnetic compass unreliable for aerial navi-
gation 1 04

Magnetic compass, liquid type 105

Magnetos 92, 236, 241

high and low tension 95

construction 95

electrical principles of 95

Dixie principle 95

Boscb principle 95

circuit 95

coil 95

spark plugs 95

timing 95

troubles 95

Maine Xaval Militia 159

Malone. squadron commander, Les Stronge. 11

first officer to fly off a moving ship... 11

Manly aero motor 241

Manner of producing the movement of a
body relative to the air which sur-
rounds it — body movable — artificial

current of air 250

Manning, Douglas E 49

Mannheim 199

Manoeuver valve of dirigible 213

Map reading 86

Maps 129

use of 129

construction of . • . % 129

Marine aeroplane gun, Vick's. Photo 112

Marinc-Luftschiff-Abtcilung 198

Marine flying 184

Martin motor Photo 2i7

seaplane, cut of 194

seaplane in flight. Photo 185

seaplane with Hall-Scott motor Photo. 99

Martin, Glenn L 157

Clarence 176

Marmora, sea of 18

Massachusetts Militia Burgess seaplane.

Photo 1 60

Xaval Militia 160

Matteson, George C 166

Materials used in construction of Zeppelin. 197

Maurain. M 251

Mauser Works, raid on 3

Maybach engine, or motor 235

Maybach-Mercedcs gasoline engines of 240

horse-power for Zeppelins 197

Mayence 202

PAGE

Maxfield. Lieut. G. D 142

Maximotor Co., aviation motor of 241

Photo 236

Maxwell. Sir John, commanding in Egypt. . 25

Meade, Winter 176

Mechanician, safety orders for 81

Mechanics more valuable to army in aircraft

than in infantry Introduction

Mechanical gasoline indicator 133

Mediterranean Expeditionary Forces 25

Mercedes motor 228

Meridional course 108

Merrill, Norman 160, 161

Mersey, British monitor 114, 115

Method of weight testing 211

Methods of aerial attack on submarines.... 45

Method of testing material 94

of compressing material 94

of stretching wire 94

of bending wire 94

of finding the center of gravity 94

Metz bombed 118

Metal aero floats 248

Mexico, U. S. naval aeroplanes in 68

Michigan Xaval Militia i . . 161

Microphones 53

Military aeronautics, text-book on.

112, 120, 125, 128

Militia, r.a"al aeronautics 155

nava! second line of defense 155

naval organization headquarters 156

Milwaukee Aero Club 269

Mines, submerged, located by aircraft 51

aircraft direct planting 51

painted to make less visible 52

Mine fie!i 51

fields, ships guided through 52

Mineola Army aviation school 49

Minimum air speed 133

Ministers of the air 4

Mississippi, seaplane carrier 27

Mitchell, Jack 1 76

Mobility 22

Mobilizing Xaval Militia aeronautic section. 169

Moinau 138

Model test of dirigible 212

Model of an aeroplane. Photo 250

Modern kite-balloon. Photo 219

Moisture 1 88

Molla 184

Monoplane, triple (the Kress) 178

experiments with 262

Monitor, achievement during Civil War,

7, 19, 21, 22

Monitors, British, Savern and Mersey.. 11 4, 115

Monosoupape motor 228

Montauk Point 49

Montagu, Lord of Beaulieu. .Introduction, 129

Moore, W. B 159

Moran t Leon S 158

Mosquito fleet 174

Mooring eye of dirigible 213

line of dirigible 213

Motorboats, German, equipped with anti-air-
craft guns 53

Photo 55

Motors, aero 6, 193, 234-241

assembling 95

care 95

disassembling 95

overhaul 95

testing 95

timing 95

troubles 95

upkeep 95

intake manifold and carburetor 242

magnetos 243, 247

circulating pump 243

f particulars 243, 247

ower crank case 241

specifications 241

cylinders 241

pistons 242

piston rings 242

connecting rods and bearings 242

crank shaft and main bearings 242

cam shaft 242

push rods 242

valve gear 242

rocker arm 242

handicap of weight 1 7J

tests 1 88

particulars 190

warming up 78

exhaust pipes 88

erecting shops 94

two and four cycle 94

function of different parts 94

manufacturers' difficulty in obtaining

high-power steel 238

Motorcycles 72

Motors, aero:

Acromarine 241

Photo 55

Antoinette 227

Anzani 183. 227

Argus. 150 horse-power 22$

Ashmusen, 12-cylinder 241

Photo 238

Atwood, 12-cylinder 234,241

Austro-Daimler, 160 horse-power 228

Backus 241

INDEX

285

PACE

Motors, aero— Continued

Bates 241

Beardmorc. 1 20 horse-power 228

Benz. 1 50 horsepower 228

Beccher horizontal. Photo 235

Brennan 241

Cbristofferson, 135 horsc-powcr 241

Photo 237

Clcrget revolving type 22*. 229. 230

Photo 230

Cantnn-Unne, 140 horse-power ....183. 228
Curtiss. 1 2-cylinder 183, 227. 230

Photo 231

Curtis, 200 horse power 241

Photo 231

Detroit gas turbine 241

Photo 235

Duesenbcrg, 12-cy Under 241

Photo 23A

Emerson 241

E. X. V 227

Frederickson 241

Fiat. 40 horse-power 228

Photo 233

General Ordnance Co., 200 horse-power 241

Photo 237

General Vehicle Company, Gnome,

183. 227. 241

Photo 228

Greene 22/

Gyro rotary 241

Photo 236

Harriman 241

Hall-Scott 88, 227, 230, 241

Photo 231

Hispano-Suiza 229, 241

Photo 239

Isotta-Fraschini 228

Photo 239

Johnson 241

Kent 241

Kesslcr 241

Knox. 1 2-cylinder 241

Photo 237

Le Rhone, 18-cylinder 28. 229, 230

Photo 230

Macomber 241

Manly 241

May bach, 200 horse-power. Photo 235

Martin. 1 2-cylinder. Photo 237

Maximotor 241

Photo 236

Mercedes. 6-cylinder 228

Photo 229

Mufflcy 241

Monosoupape, 100 horse-power 228

Napier . 229, 230

New Jersey Aeroplane Co 241

Nilson-Miller 241

Nieuport 227

Oldfield . . . ., 241

Orlo 241

Photo 238

Packard. 250 horse-power 241

Photo 236

R. A. F. 90 horse-power 228, 229

Rausenherger 241

RenauU 183, 227

R. h. P 227

Roberts 241

Robinson 241

Rolls-Royce. 250 horse-power. .228, 229, 230

Sterling-Sunbeam. 12-cylindcr 241

Photo 239

Sturtevant, 8-cy Under, aluminum. . .230, 241

Photo 232

Sturtevant, 140 horse-power. Photo ... 232

Thomas 230, 241

Photo 232

Trebert 241

Photo 234

Tone 241

Van Blerck 241

Photo 233

Vivinus 227

Wells Adams 241

Williams. 125 horse-power 241

Photo 238

Wisconsin 241

Photr 234

Wright Bros 227, 241

1906 type. Photo 22S

Mufflers for aeronautic engines 181

Muffly Aero Motor 247

Mulock. Flight Lieut. Reford Henry 171

Munro. Gen. Sir Charles 25

Musttn, Commander H. C 142, 149

Myers, Cornelius T 184

George M i 182

MacCreagh, G 1 63

McCall, Governor of Massachusetts 160

McCormick. Harold F 182

McCulloch. David H 174

offers use of his two Hying boats 168

McDonald, A. M. and Stuart 1 58

McDonnell, Lieut. E. 142

Mcllvain, Lieut. W. M 142

McKean, Captain J. S 1 44. 14")

McMillin, Emerson 157, 161, 172. 173

McNair, Lieut. G. N 135

McNaughton, Leslie 176

McPeters, Commander Edward 162

di

PAGE

Nagel. Joseph 176

Napier Co 229

Natho, A. I 138

National Advisory Committee for Aero-
nautics, second annual report 249

National Aerial Coast Patrol Commission,

171, 176
making plans for developing torpedo-
plane 19

National Aeroplane Fund,

158, 159. 160, 163. 168

Special Aid Society 167

Naval Aeronautics Introduction, 41, 232

Aeronautic*. U. S. Navy 135. 136

aeronautic station 69

aeroplane. Austrian, rescues crew of

sinkin;: French submarine 44

aeroplane... first recognized use of,

spotti'i.; 114

specifications 186

aero squadrons 5

air raid, first of great war. Photo 6

ell l .'(rl \ lCv ••••••••••■•*•■••••••••••• vU

airship division P'8

anti-aircraft defenses 53

Appropriation Act 23H. 23V

aviator, British, filming military obser-
vation 1 23

architecture 242

dirigibles. Photo 40

districts in L*. S 63

kite balloon guarding French harbor.. 116

Militia aeronautics 155, 1 73

development of 1 56

Militia best medium for those interested
in aviation to ally themselves to the

national defense 164

officer, duties of 77

power, article on 21

Reserve Flying Corps 126

regulations 151

eligibility 151

>ay 151

luties 152

requirements 152

penalty for non-compliance 152

enrollments 152

transfers 153

appointments 153

pay accounts ' 153

discipline 154

retirements 1 54

active service assignments 154

uniform 154

discharges 154

records 154

transfers to other classes 154

Navigating a Zeppelin 197

Navy Department interested in building up

an aviation corps of volunteers 164

Navy Department 232

decides against Government construction

of aircraft 138

Navy's kite balloon (Goodyear type) at
Pensacola, Fla., Aviation Station.

Photo 217

Navy report 49

Necessity of aeronautic sections in the Naval

Militia of States 168

Nceher, Elwood H 1 66

Netting submarine 47

New Jersey Naval Militia 162

Aeroplane Co. motor 241

Newton, Hon. Byron R 172

New York Construction Co.'s twin-motored

seaplane. Photo 22

New York, defense of 57

Naval Militia 1 63

Nickerson. Miss Lyra Brown 168

Nieuport engines 227

Night, allied seaplane returning to carrier.

Photo 126

Hying 101, 126

flight, first in U. S 126

flying equipment. Spcrry Photo 127

flying, by Lawrence B. Sperry 97

Nilson- Miller aero motor 241

Norrleet, Lieut. J. E 142

Norfolk 202

North Sea 200

North Carolina seaplane carrier 27

Norton, Harman C 49

Norwegian 200

Nosing over 99

Number of British naval aviators. . .Introduction
of ships examined by British Navy,

Introduction

of U. S. naval aviators, 1916 144

Observation balloons 86

balloon ascending. Photo 36

being intlated. Photo 35

in action. Photo 36

Observations for determination of drift.... 107

from kite balloon 222

military, being filmed 123

Oelrich-.. fleinrich 228

Officers Introduction

in charge of naval aeronautics 149

in Naval Flying Corps. Photo 146

PAGE

Officers — Continued

in V. S. Naval Reserve Flying Corps.. 151

in C. S. Naval Air Service pay 142

1915 143

of Flying Corps at Pensacola. Photo.. 148
of the aviation sections of the First and
Second Battalions. New York Naval
Militia, at Bay Shore, Long Island.

Photo ^ 166

qualifications for Naval Flying Corps... 145

rules for 77, 85, 87

to compose U. S. Naval Flying Corps.. 145

Oil feed 78

flow 132

gauge 130, 132, 188

gauge used in aeroplane. Photo 132

level 78

piping annealed 188

pressure gauge 130, 132

system 132

Oiling 82

Oiling types of aero motors 241

Oldfield aero motors 241

Oregon Naval Militia 167

Orlo motor 241

Photo 238

Ornithopter 178

Ostende 199

combed 119

Osterhaus, Rear Admiral Hugo 187

Outline of front part of flying boat. 110

Outstanding features of modern kite bal-
loons. Photo 219

Packard Motor. Photo 236

Pacific Aero Club 269

Packing up and carrying oxygen valve.... 225

Painting mines 52

submarines to make them less visible. . 48
Palmer, L. C, Chief of Bureau of Naviga-
tion 154

Panel engine 88

lower left wing 88

small central wing 88

upper left wing 88

upper right wing 88

Parabolic reflectors 127

Parachute 226

flare 126

dropped by airman to see ship below

him 127

Paris, France 272

Paris-Deauville race 184

Park, Ensign J. K 169

Parts, aeroplane 192

joiner plant 192

spare 192

Passenger's cock-pit 88

Patrolling Boston harbor, seaplane, the

Lark 161

Patrol motor boats mistaken for submarine . . 49

Paulhan 183

Paunack, Lieut. P. R 152

Payments for planes 192

Pay accounts for Naval Reserve Flying

Corps 153

Pay of naval aviators 143

of the Naval Reserve Flying Corps.... 151

of active service 1 52

of retainer 152

Pay son, Richard 1 59

Peary, Rear-Admiral Robert E 159, 171, 172

P£goud, first man to loop the loop 33

Penalty for non-compliance with require-
ments of Naval Reserve Flying Corps 152

Penguin machine 99

Pennell. William D 159

Pensacola Aero School 69

Photo 74, 78

Florida, navy's only aeronautical station

in 1915. Photo 147

officers of Flying Corps. Photo 148

school for aviators 93

Pensions 148

Pennsylvania Naval Militia 168

Periscope 46, 48

Petain, General Introduction

Phaeton. British ship 199

Photograph, aerial 121

of sunken schooner from an aeroplane.. 104

of wave crests from an aeroplane 108

of Kiinigsberg from an aeroplane 113

of Russian fleet from an aeroplane,
taken at a height of 4.000 feet, show-
ing how clearly the camera reports
the composition and disposition of the

enemy's fleet. Photo 121

of Gallipoli, taken by Allied aviator at
height of 2.000 feet, showing every

inlet and ships 122

of Russian cruiser from a Curtiss

hydroaeroplane. Photo 10

of British destroyer from aeroplane.

Photo 13

Photograph taken from one of kite balloon
protecting Venice from attack by

Austrian ships on the Adriatic. Photo 222
of one of the flying boats of the Volun-
teer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1.
taken from another flying boat of the

unit 174

286

INDEX

PACI

Photographers, aeronautics, fired on 116

Photographic evidence brought back by
aviator of a railroad bridge destroyed

by him in Balkans 122

maps 121

proofs of aerial raids 121

Physics of the air 181

Pierce, Ensign S. S 166, 167

Pierce, Ensign T. J. H 1 69

Pilot 79, 87

Pilot's cock-pit 88

Certificate issued by Aero Club of

America. Photo 273

Pilot, Porte, Squad Commander 118

Sperry automatic 1 27

tube leads 132

type of air-speed meter 131

Piloting, duties of coast patrol aviator 171

Piston of aero motor 235

rings of aero motor 235

Plan of naval aeronautic center 70

of parts of hydroaeroplane 88

Plans tor construction 192

lining up 92

patching 92

wires 92

Planing, limiting speed for 261

Planting a submarine mine. Photo 52

Plates, hand hole 79

Plugs 79

Pontoons 79, 88

Pontoon guys 88

material used in 94

methods of securing 94

supports 88

Poor, > Captain Chas. L 163

Porpoise dives 46

Position 85

Post, Augustus. Photo 140, 161

Post, Edward M., Jr 49

Potsdam 199

Potter. Stephen 176

Potter's bar 201

Power plant 188, 192

of dirigible 215

Practical knowledge 90

Practice shooting at kites 63

Precautions in flight over water 108

Prescott, C. H 1 59

Prevost 138, 184

Private boats as balloon ships. Photo 37

invention and experiment 139

Problems of aeronautics in U. S. Navy... 138

Problem of speed control 109

Procedure before flight 78

Projectiles for anti-aircraft guns 56

Promoting military aeronautics 163

Propellers 188, 195

Zeppelin 1 97

Propeller blades 82

efficiency 261

lock nut adjustment 82

shaft, hollow, for Lewis aeroplane

gun. Photo 60

tractor 88

Protective coatings of dirigible 211

Prove, F 163

Public must realize possibilities in aero-
nautics Introduction

Pulling, Lieutenant E. L 61

Pulling down kite balloon 221

Pumpelly, Harold 176

Push rods girth 82

valve of aero motor 235

Pusher type, contracts for 144

Putnam. Lighthouse Commissioner 48

Pyott, Lieut. G. V 61

Qualifications for air service in U. S.

Navy j. 87

Quartermaster's aeroplane 87, 93, 94

jueen City Aero Club 269

juogue, Long Island, Lighthousekeeper at.. 48

Radial drill 93

Radiator 78

vertical 88

Radiator temperature indicator 130, 133

Radio communication fails 174

of dirigible 214

telegraphy 1 24, 136

Radius, flying 138

rods, shoulder yolk 91

R. A. F. motor 228, 229

engines 229

napier engines 229, 230

Raids by aeroplanes and seaplanes 3

Range finders 53

Range of anti-aircraft guns 130

of aviator's vision 46

spotting Introduction

Ransdale, Captain D. S 45

Rateau, M 250

Rathbone, Squade Commander 118

Rausenberger aero motor 241

Reactions exerted by the air on a body

in relative movement with it 249

Read, Lieut. A. C 142

Reassembly 88

Rebabbiting bearings 92

PAGX

Reconnaissance, aerial 121

Records for Naval Reserve Flying Corps... 154

Recovering seaplanes at sea 31

Recovery after steep glide 190

Reed, Charles 104

Reflectors, parabolic 127

Regulations for U. S. Navy aeronautic station. 69

relating to enrollments in the U. S.

Naval Reserve Flying Corps 151

Reichstag 198

Reinserting the rip-panel 225

Renard, Col. Charles 261

Renault motor 1 83, 227

Renaux 1 83

Renolds, Warren S 158

Repairs 83

R. E. P. engines 227

Reports at flying school 79. 83

Report of National Advisory Committee on

Aeronautics 249

Requisitions 90

Rescue work at aeronautic station 77

Resistance curves of floats 247

of the air 249

Retainer pay in Reserve Flying Corps 151

Retiring from service, rank and rating .... 152

Reynolds, H. V 158

Rheinau, Schuette-Lanz works 199, 202

Rhode Island Naval Militia 168

Sturtevant seaplane presented to 168

Ribs 95

Richardson, Naval Constructor, H. C,

135. 136, 143. 149
Richardson, Naval Constructor, H. C, U.

S. N 242

Ricochet 1 79

Rigging 86

Rip panels of dirigible 213

Roberts aero motor 24 1

Robinson aero motor 241

Robinson, Hugh 1 83

Robinson, Commander S. S 136

Robinson, Lieut. Commander 24

Robinson, Lieut. W. L 61

Robinson, Lieut. William L 199

Rochester Aero Club 269

Rodgcrs, Lieut. John 1 24, 135

flies hydroaeroplane 27, 28

Rodman, Clifford 176

Rolfe, J. C 163

Rolling practice 85

Rolls-Royce Co 229

Rolls-Royce engine 229, 230

motor 228

Rosher, Flight Lieut. H 41

Rostock, harbor of 198

Rotating tube 106

Roughby H. W 158

Rough-weather flying 88

Rouillet, French naval sub-lieutenant 43

Routine at aeronautic station 76

Rowson, F. L 179

Royal Flying Corps,

59, 60, 85, 86, 228, 229, 230

naval aviators 3

naval sea service 25

Rudder, hinged to vertical fin 88

control wheel 90, 91

control wires 90, 91

foot bar 90

insignia. Photo 276

Rudders 187

steering, diving 190

Rufigi River 114, 115

Rugerc 183, 184

Rules for flying British R. F. C 85

Rules for wireless operators from aircraft.. 125
Rules governing tests for the Federation

Acronautique International Pilot Cer-
tificates 272

Rules, of road, air and beach 78

Running rigging of dirigible 209

Runway 7S

Ruse. Cap. W. R 161

Russia 227

Russian fleet bombards Bosphorus 26

Rust 82

Rutland, Flight Lieutenant 24

Kuttan. Ensign C. E 166, 167

Ryan, P. S 158

Sachsen, training airship 198

Safe policies Introduction

Safety and gas contral valve 208, 213

jacket 78, 87

Saint-Cyr 250

Salmon, First Lieut. H. H 49

Salmson-Unne motor 183

Salonika 113

campaign 6

Samson, Wing Commander, raids Bruges.. 118

Commander 11

Commander C. R., Royal British Navy,

flying from warship. Photo 29

Commander Charles Rumney, flies from

battleship Hibernia 28

first officer to fly off a ship at anchor. . 11

mentioned in dispatches , 11

operations in Flanders 11

operations in Gallipoli 1 1

San Raphael 41

PACE

San Souci, Emery J 169

Santos- Dumont, Alberto 227

Saufley, Lieut. R. C 138, 142, 149, 150

Saverin. British monitor 114, 115

Scale for speed, cut of 247

Schieffelin, John Jay 176

Schleswig coast 199

School machine, Curtiss. Photo 75, 78

Schutte-Lanz design 200

type of airship 1 98

works at Rheinau. near Mannheim.... 199

Scofield, Lieut. H. W 142

Scotia. German^ rescued by Zeppelin from

British submarine 10

Scotland, raid on 200

Scott, George 1 168

Hall motor. Photo 231

Scott, Sir Percy 58

defines functions of vessels of war.... 4

head of auto aircraft of London 4

sensational prophecy 39

Scouting 5

and spotting, primary uses of aircraft

with the fleet 1 70

Screw cutting latfte 93

Sea duty of officers in flying corps 147

Seaplane, Allied, returning to seaplane car-
rier at night. Photo 126

American, Vera Cruz; identification

marks, American flag 276

Austrian, brought down by French gun-
ners. Photo 62

being lowered from carrier. Photo .... 25

Bcnoist twin-motored. Photo 20

British snapshots, Konigsbcrg 113

British, with Vick's aeroplane gun.

Photo 112

built by Aeronautic Plane & Motor Co.

Photo 102

built in Washington Navy Yard 143

Burgess-Dunne 1 66

Burgess of Massachusetts Militia 160

carrier, Ark Royal. Photo 24. 26, 27

Ben-Ma Chrec 11. 12, 26, 123

British, attacked by German air-
craft at Cuxhaven. Photo 11

Engandine 24, 35

French, La Foudre. Photo 30

Hermes 26

La Foudre, first hangar ship 28

lowering seasplane. Photo 25

carriers 6, 24, 28

used in first naval air raid 6

carrying torpedo. Photo 17

clearing small boats. Photo 98

constructed by N. Y. Construction Co.

Photo 22

Curtiss at Pensacola. Photo 78

evolution of 177

first test in spotting 114

first test of 1 83

for submarine hunting. Photo 5

French, on submarine patrol. Photo.. 44

French. Photo 80

German, raids Dover 60

given by Aero Club of New England. . 160

hangar Photo 21

identification marks, Austrian, iron

cross 276

L. F. W. type, presented to the Mich-
igan Militia. Photo 162

No. 172
No. 7

pilot must estimate wave length 108

raids 3

station, British 72

Sturtevant, presented to Rhode Island

Militia. Photo 162

twin-motored 143

twin-motored Curtiss with which Victor
Carlstrom flew 614 miles. Photo.... 161

U. S. X. experimental 143

U. S. Navy twin-motored Gallaudet.

Photo 18

Seaplanes 64, 66

Belgian, in East Africa. Photo 82

carried on U. S. cruiser. Photo 26

equipped with radio 125

in France 1 83

lack of American 49

lack of British 41

less useful than dirigible in locating

mine fields 52

owned by sportsmen 183

status of 136

types of American 191, 194

Searchlights 69, 70, 71

used in Sperry night-flying equipment.. 127

Seattle. U. S. S 27

Seaworthiness 190

Securing fabric to surfaces 95

Self, R. E 161

Self-starter, Christensen 79

of aero motors 241

Sensitive drill 93

Series of observing tubes 1 06

Service feed tank 1 96

Sextant 130, 133

Shaper 93

Shrapnel for anti-aircraft guns 5$

Shaw Aeroplane Company 141

Sheppard, Senator Morris, of Texas 172

INDEX

287

FAGB

8hipa examined by British Navy .... Introduction

cleared in British ports 41

guided through mine fields 52

Shop work 88

Short, folding wings seaplane being lifted
out of the hold of a seaplane carrier.

Photo 188

Shore anti-aircraft gun defenses 53

Shorting button 79

Shoulder yolk aileron control 91

radius rods 91

Side slip spirals 80

Side-ship indicator 132

pendulum type 1 32

string or pennant type 132

cannot be used in the wake of a

tractor propeller 132

Signals 80, 85

Siman, John 159

Simons, Lieut. M. H 1 36

Simpson, Ensign Frank, Jr 157

Lieut. Frank, Jr 158

Sincay, Lieut, de 43

Sine of angle between wave crests and

stream-line Ill

Stppe, Flight Lieutenant V. S 118

Six-cylinder, vertical, water-cooled motor. . . 88

Skoda works, Pilren, Austria 56

Slava, Russian cruiser, bombed by Ger-
man aero squad 10

* Slocum, Thomas W 174

- Smith, Captain E. L 45

- Smith, Earl Hamilton 172

" Smith, E. T 176

■ Smith, Lieut. B. L 142

Smoking 83

Soap 82

Socket wrenches .' 192

Sopwith seaplanes, which "spotted*' for the
gunners on the Monitors Savern and
Mersey and made it possible to de-
stroy the German cruiser Konigsberg,
hidden up the Rungi River in German

East Africa 115

Sounds in motor 79

So wry, Lieut. F 61

Spamur wrenches 192

, Spark plugs 95, 192

Spark, cutout 81

. Spars 95

Specifications 90

for aeroplane motors issued by Navy

Department 232

for parts of motor 234

for seaplanes 143

speed 40 to 70 miles per hour,
climb 2,500 feet in first ten min-
utes, landing not over 40 miles
?er hour, radius four hours with
ull power fly in wind 35 miles
per hour, drift in wind 25 miles
per hour get away, and land in
wind of 25 miles per hour.
for U. S. navy scouting type dirigibles. 206

Spherical balloon pilot's certificate 272

Spherical balloons 36

Speed, actual 110

to obtain, add the speed of the wave
crests to the speeds obtained by
stroboscopic methods in all cases of
following wind and subtract in case

of head wind Ill

anemometer 110

control, problem of 109

flying at night 131

indicator using stroboscope method.

Photo 109

Spencer, Lieut. E. W 142

Sperry automatic pilot 127

Clinometer. Photo 134

Elmer A 104, 159, 172

instructograph 1 00

Lawrence B 14, 108. 126

photo of landing place during night

flight 97

night-flying equipment. Photo 127

stallometer. Photo 134

Spirals 88, 89, 91, 100

Spotting Introduction

from a dirigible 113

from a kite balloon 113

the fall of shots 113

first use of naval aeroplanes 114

Square of the speed 244

Stability, directional 190

in flight 190

inherent or natural 190

initial 190

lateral 190

longitudinal 190

Stabilizer 88, 95

horizontal 88. 192

vertical 192

Stalling 81, 98, 133

Stallometer 1 30, 1 33

Sperry. Photo 134

Standard hydrogen gas balloon cylinders
designed to contain 200 cubic feet of

hydrogen. Photo 224

Starting crank for main engine of dirigible. 209

device 188

lever 79

PAGI

Standard aeroplane, cut of 191

Stay wires 192

Steering 88, 190

and rip panels of dirigible 213

controls of dirigible 213

Steel, quality necessary for motors 231

Stephens, B. & Son 141

Stolz, Ensign M. L 138, 149

Photo 146

Stop signal 85

Stover, Ensign J. Homer 163

Stream-lines 110

Stream-line observation 1 06

Sterling Sunbeam motor. Photo 239, 241

Strength of a deck or engineer division

of militia 155

of an aeronautic division of militia... 155

test of dirifrib'e 211

Stroboscope 106, 1 09. Ill

method. Photo 109

Structural shopwork 88

Structure of dirigible 209

Struts 95

material used in 94

method of wiring and location 94

set of 192

Strut, right outer forward interplane 88

left outer rear interplane 88

Student fiyers 148

Students 67, 78, 86, 87

Studies of aeroplanes of free flight 252

Study of horizontal movement of aero-
planes 256

Sturtevant Aeroplane Co 1 44

A. D 173

motor 141

B. F., aviation motor. Photo 232

B. F. Co 141

140-horsc-power motor. Photo. .. .232, 241
motor on Burgess-Dunne seaplane.

Photo 99

seaplane. Photo 101

cut of 191

Submarine, Allied, sunk by Turkish aero-
plane 43

as seaplane carriers 34

Austrian, sunk by French aviator 42

bombed by dirigible. Photo 41

detecting 47

diagrams illustrating 46

distinguishing hostile 48

emerging, detected by observers in kite

balloon. Photo 43

equipped with disappearing guns 56

first attack by aircraft 42

French, sunk by Austrian seaplane .... 44

German, forced to submerge 43

German, seaplane carriers 53

German, sunk by Lieutenants Viney

and de Sincay 43, 44

German, with anti-aircraft gun. Photo. 60

hunting Introduction

by aircraft 38, 39

Davis non-recoil gun. Photo 5

hunt, first American aerial 48

kite balloon, watching for. Photo.... 42

mentioned 8, 10

methods and weapons of aerial attacks. 45

mine. Photo 52

netted by trawlers with aid of patrol

seaplane 45

netting 47

painting 48

painted to be less visible 48

periscope seen from aeroplane. Photo,

38, 39

patrol. Photo 44

speed of 47

spotters 204

warfare, effect on use of aircraft 170

Substructure 188

Suction influence of floats 242, 243

Super-Zeppelin 200

Suspension of dirigible 209, 214

Sustaining quality of an airplane 261

Swanson. Senator 57

Synchronized drift set 107

Photo 106

drift set with two compasses. Photo. . 107

Table of American hydroaeroplanes, sea-
planes and flying boats 193

American manufacturers 193

characteristics of the leading American

airplanes and motors 241

Tachometer 130, 132, 188

Tail float 88

plane 88

skid 98

slide 100, 101

spins 1 00

Tangent 105

Tanks. British 22

Tardiness of magnetic compass 105

Target 113

photograph of destroyer from aero-
plane. Photo 13

Taylor, Chief Naval Constructor D. W 149

Technical knowledge necessary for Naval

Reserve Flying Corps 153

PACE

Technicians more valuable in aircraft than

in infantry Introduction

Telegraphy radio 124

Telescopes, or vision tubes, angular velocity

of 106

Telephones, use of in spotting 113

Temperature 117

change of an aeroplane instrument.... 130

Tempest, Lieut. \V. G 61

Term of enlistment 148

Territory 238, 239

Tests for calendar year 1917 274

for aviator's certificate 273

on completed envelope of dirigible 212

Testing aeroplane wings and models 150

aeroplane and balloon fabrics 150

large models of naval aeroplanes ...... 150

model of a monoplane in Eiffel's wind

tunnel. Photo 253

new dirigible building 1 50

work 1 40

Textbook on military aeronautics,

112, 120, 125, 128

Thames 200

"The Aeroplane," British magazine 197

Thermometer 133

Thirteen naval districts of the U. S 64

Thomas aviation school at Ithaca, N. Y.

Photo 98

aeromotor, self-starter. Photo 232

aeroplane, cut of 191

Bros. Aeroplane Co 141, 1*44

-Morse motor 230, 241

motor 161

Thompson, Mayor, of Chicago 158

Lewis S 175

Three-inch guns 112

Three-motored seaplane. Photo 4

Throttle 78

x nuiiOiVy Vsa j • •••••••••••••••••••••••••• iwi

Tidal currents 132

Tinis Olsen testing machine 94

Tirlemont 199, 200

To fold parachute 236

Tondern, harbor of 198, 200

Tone aero motor 241

Tools 188

aeroplane 192

power plant 192

Torpedo carriers 17

Photo 16

means for releasing 17

Photo 16

launching 5

Torpedoplanc 14, 16, 64, 67

its great possibilities 16

Total resistance of the air and the deter-
mination of the pressures at each
point of the surface of the body under

investigation 253

Toussaint, M. M 253

Towers, Lieut. J. H 142, 146, 149, 183

Lieut. Commander John H., experi-
ments in launching hydroaeroplane... 135

Photo 140

experiments with drift-set,

107, 136, 138

Towns, flying over 85

Tractor propeller 88

type, contracts for 1 44

Training airmen Introduction

aerial gunnery 175

biplane 1 63

demand for 175

discipline 1 75

general aerial coast patrol work 175

of aviators 86, 97

wireless 1 75

Trebert aero motor 241

revolving engine. Photo 234

Trcwin, G. S., assistant paymaster 24

Trials, acceptance 190

demonstration 190

for U. S. Navy dirigibles — endurance,

speed, manoeuvering 208

Triplane carrying torpedo. Photo 17

Troops, transported 41

Trouble reports 84

Turbine, Detroit gas. Photo 235

Tunnel method 250

Turkish report 25

aeroplane sinks Allied submarine .... 43

Turnbuckles 94, 192

Turning 87

Twin motors 6

motored seaplane. Photo 18, 20

motored hydroaeroplane in U. S. Navy.

Photo 20

motored seaplane, New York Aero Con-
struction Co. Photo 22

Tygard Engine Co 141

Types of American seaplanes, cuts of.. 191, 194

of American aero motors 231, 241

of European aero motors 229

U-boat 47, 49

driven off by French aeroplane 45

warfare 175

U-boats Introduction, 34, 196

Uniform of Naval Reserve Flying Corps. . . 154

288

INDEX

PACE

United States 230. 239

U. S. aeronautics 9

Aerial Coast Patrol 171

Army 276

Army and Navy aeroplanes 230

aviators 19

cruiser Seattle carrying seaplanes. Photo 26
naval aeronautic station at Pensacola,

Fla. Photo 69, 74

aeroplanes in Mexico 68

aviation camp at Annapolis in 1912.

Photo 136

dirigible, first 202, 203

districts 64

Navy 204, 206

aero camp and hangar tents at

Guantanamo Bay. Photo 135

aeronautic program 1 68

aeronautics 135

anti-aircraft gun. Photo.. 53, 55, 58

aviators at Vera Cruz 136

aviators, number of 144

aviation hydrographer. Photo .... 138
catapult for launching seaplanes.

Photo 31, 33

courses of instruction for air serv-
ice 87

Curtiss flying boat. Photo 22

experimental wind tunnel 142, 150

first dirigible 141

first hydroaeroplane, Curtiss. Photo 30
first test of wireless from an aero-
plane 124

flying corps, how composed 145

hydroaeroplanes. Photo 20

orders 16 coast patrol dirigibles... 148

qualifications for air service 87

Rear Admiral Bradley A. Fiske
states that 100 battleplanes equals

60,000 rifles 5

Reserve Flying Corps 151

seaplane. Photo 18, 143

seaplane first to use radio 124

specifications for aeroplanes on

Sept. 5, 1916 185

U. S. S. Nevada and Oklahoma 36

North Carolina launching Curtiss flying

boat. Photo 33

Unter-Tullnerbach docks, Austria, experi-
ments 1 78

Upper crank case 235

Uppercu, Inglis M.. presents hydroaero-

5 lane to Naval Reserve of New
ersey 1 63

Upson, Ralph H 217

Use as a free balloon 224

Useful power 261, 262

Uses of aircraft defined 7, 8, 9

aircraft and types used 170

armed air cruisers,
attacking ships and submarines,
communicating information to ships,
convoying ships,
locating submarines,
submarine bases,
submerged mines,
observation balloons, torpedoplanes,
patrolling coasts,

protecting naval bases from aerial at-
tack,
protecting ships,

seaplanes, dirigibles, kite balloons,
serving as eyes in planting mines.
Usher, Rear-Admiral Nathaniel R 64

Valve 79

stems 82

timing 82

Valves, grinding in 92

setting 92

timing 92

Van Blerck aviation motor 241

Photo 233

Vandy, Charles B 166

Van Kirk, Ensign Dean R 1 58

Vaseline 82

Velocity, of wind 1 09

of waves 1 09

angular of stroboscope 109

pressure affects barometer 131

or surface wind direction 132

Vent covers 82

Vents 82

Vera Cruz, American seaplane 276

U. S. N. air scout at 143

Veri light 126

PAGE

Vertical firm or stabilizer 88

radiator 88

water-cooled motor 88

Vesaul, France, first place bombs were

dropped 118

Vibration effect on aeroplane instruments. . 130

Vick's marine aeroplane gun. Photo 112

Vickers, builder of Bcn-Ma-Chree 26

Vickers- Maxim gun 112

Viktoria-Luise, training airship 198

Vallacoublay 253

Vincennes military aviation laboratory 250

Viney, Lieutenant 43

Vision tubes, or telescopes, angular velocity of 1 06

aviator's range of 46

Vivinus motor 227

Voison, Charles and Gabriel, experiment,

June 8, 1905. Photo 178

Gabriel 178

machine in flight. Photo 182

biplane 182, 252

Volunteer Aerial Coast Patrol Unit No. 1,

14, 174

flying boat photographed by another
boat of the unit. Photo 1 74

Naval Reserve 1 52

Verys, John 173

V-bottom floats 246

Wake of periscope 46

Waldon, Sidney D., describes storm which

wrecked Michigan seaplane 162

Walsh, David G 160, 161

H. H 169

Wanamaker, Rodman 9. 175

Wardrop, G. Douglas 161

Warrior 24

Washington Navy Yard 29, 143,242

Water rudders 244

line inertia 243

Watkins, Flight Commander Harold E. M.. 115

Watson. Senator James K 172

Wave crest, observation as to movement .... 1 04

crests viewed from aeroplane. Photo. . 108

length, distance from crest to crest. . 108

Weapons for aerial attack on submarine ... 45

Wehrle. Lieutenant H. F 49

Weight of framework of Zeppelins 197

of items of parts of dirigible 209

of motors 227, 241

of gyroscopic compass 105

of radio set 1 24

Wells, Adam, aero motor 241

Wester velt, Naval Constructor George C... 149

West Palm Beach training camp 175

Weymann 1 84

Weymouth, England, naval review 28

Weyse, J. G 158

Wheeler, Schuyler, Skaats 14

Wheels 98

Whitehead torpedo 13, 14

auto torpedo, how launched from aero-
plane 17

torpedo used to sink Turkish vessels. . 18

Whitford, Charles 169

Whiting. Lieut. K 142

Whitman. Miss Olive, christens flying boat
presented to First Battalion, N. M.

N. Y 164

Governor, expressing thanks for flying . .

boat. Photo 165

Wilhelmshaven harbor 198

Willetts, First Lieut. Wm. P 49

Williams motor 241

Williamson, Lieut. Commander 26

Willoughy. Hugh L., early experiments,

1908-10. Photo 182

Wilson, Woodrow 1 73

Wiman, C. D 173

Wind 190

tunnel for testing models, plan and side

view. Photo 254

experimental 1 42, 1 50

turbine driven generator for night fly-
equipment. Photo 127

velocity and direction 104

Wing float wire bracing 88

insignia. Photo 276

Wings 187, 190

methods of securing 94

material used in 94

of an aeroplane, study of Polar diagram

of M. Eiffel 256

lift of 244, 256

Winslow, E. B 159

Wires control 92

brace 92

plane 92

Culver,
140-mile
use of in
weight of

pac:

Wireless 1.

on kite balloons 4.

lack of on American seaplanes 4'

on seaplane. Photo y

warning anti-aircraft gunner. Photo.. 11
first test of from an aeroplane in L*. S.

Navy 12

apparatus, invention of Captain C. C.
U. S. A., in cock-pit, with

sending set 12

spotting 113, 12'

apparatus 11

message first sent from hydroaeroplane. 12-

Wire terminal 9

size of 9

connections between upper and lower

ailerons 4

Wisconsin aviation motor 24

Naval Militia 16'

Wise Wood, Henry A 14. 1 5V. 17

opinion of torpedop!ar.e I-

Wismar. harbor of 19

Witmer. C. C American aviatur 2

Wood, Major-General Leonard A 16

Woodhouse, Henry,

14, 16. 137, 140. 159. 172. 173. 17

Wright

Wrights. Photo 22

Wright aeroplane, cuts of H. S. tvpe.... 19

Orville 177, 17s, 17'*. IS

Wilbur 1*

experiment with hydros, 1907. Photo., h

flying boat, early type. Photo 1J*

experiments 17

aeroplane 13

Aeroplane Co 14

machine landing after trial flight in 1912
at Annapolis by Ensign V. D. Herb-

ster. Photo 13

-Martin motor 227, 24

Wrightsman, Ensign Charles B 16

Wrenches, socket lv

panner,
open end,
spanner.
Wysong, Ensign F. E 166. 16

Yarmouth bombed

11

Zahm, Dr. Albert F

Zeebrugge bombed

Zenith carburetor

Zeppelin, hit by anti-aircraft guns. .56. 57,

first raid

first attacks England

radio set

sheds attacked by French aviators ....

Photo 7,

Count

endurance

equipment

bombs

machine guns

description of various classes of..l Q 7.

airship of the nava! class

works

type of airship

17" wrecked and on fire in North Sea.
damaged by British light cruisers and
destroyed by British submarine.

Photo

sketch of the frame of, brought down

in Essex, England. Photo

dirigible a potential craft for war and
peace, capable of staying in air 50
hours, carrying a useful load of 7
tons, at a speed of 60 miles per

hour. Photo

"L. Z. 6" o nthc stocks, strong alumi-
num frame 490 feet long. Photo...
obtains information as to British forces.
Zeppelins,

3. 6, 38. 41, 56, 57, 61, 67, 68, 196.

services to Germany

Germany had about 40 at beginning of

war

have been produced almost as quickly

as U-boats

German investments over $100,000,000.

cuts of

diagrams of

key to diagrams

Zero on the bezel

14

11

Q

6

11
11
12
11
6

19
19
19

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iv
lv

JO
19

19

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—

20
20

19

1 9
20

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SEP 1 7 1917